Cowan's three-factor embedded processes model fit young children's working memory data slightly better than Baddeley and Hitch's three-factor model and decisively better than Baddeley's four-factor episodic buffer model¶

Claim · All claims
Evidence · 1 study (2 entries) · associational r2 · q3
Currency · newest study 2016 · checked against its sources 2026-10-20 (automated, 2 of 2 entries) · not reviewed by a person

Subclaims¶

q3 i? In confirmatory factor analyses of 13 working memory tasks in 168 children aged 7-9, the Cowan embedded processes model showed better fit on all indices than the Baddeley and Hitch three-factor model, including an AIC 6 points lower. → Gray Shelley 2016 q3 i? Baddeley's four-factor model including an episodic buffer failed to fit because the episodic buffer factor was empirically indistinguishable from the visuospatial sketchpad factor, with an out-of-bounds correlation of 1.08. → Gray Shelley 2016 (2)

Evidence¶

Gray Shelley 2016¶

Gray Shelley, Green Samuel, Alt Mary, Hogan Tiffany P., Kuo Trudy, Brinkley Shara, Cowan Nelson. (2016). The Structure of Working Memory in Young Children and Its Relation to Intelligence. Journal of Memory and Language. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5157932/

q3 · i? · associational · r2

Confirmatory factor analysis comparing three working memory models in 168 children aged 7-9 with typical development. Both models evidenced good fit, but "the Cowan model showed better fit on all fit indices," with the AIC 6 points lower for the Cowan model.

"As shown in the top part of Table 5, both the Cowan embedded process model and the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) models evidenced good fit. However, the Cowan model showed better fit on all fit indices. For example, the AIC was 6 points lower for the Cowan embedded process model than for the Baddeley and Hitch model."

Gray Shelley 2016 (2)¶

Gray Shelley, Green Samuel, Alt Mary, Hogan Tiffany P., Kuo Trudy, Brinkley Shara, Cowan Nelson. (2016). The Structure of Working Memory in Young Children and Its Relation to Intelligence. Journal of Memory and Language. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5157932/

q3 · i? · associational · r2

CFA of Baddeley's four-component model in the same sample. The correlation between the visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer factors was 1.08, an out-of-bounds estimate, showing "an episodic buffer factor is empirically indistinguishable from the visuospatial sketch pad factor."

"The Baddeley four-component model converged to solution, but the correlation between the visuospatial sketch pad factor and the episodic buffer factor was 1.08, an out-of-bounds estimate. These results indicate that an episodic buffer factor is empirically indistinguishable from the visuospatial sketch pad factor."

Discussion¶

Related Claims¶

• Binding tasks showed no separate episodic buffer faculty, loading instead with visuospatial tasks or the focus of attention — related
• Central executive and focus of attention factors were highly correlated but statistically distinct, warranting separate factors in young children — related
• In the Baddeley and Hitch model, the visuospatial factor was most strongly related to intelligence, but the only significant path was between visuospatial and Gv — related
• Digit span running loaded on the focus of attention factor rather than the phonological factor, supporting Cowan's claim that running span performance reflects attentional capacity — related
• Working memory is distinct from short-term memory in subsystem count and functional role in higher cognition — a broader claim this one bears on
• The focus of attention factor was the only significant predictor of both fluid reasoning and visual processing intelligence when all three working memory factors were entered — related
• A common attentional component is needed for feature binding, running digit span, and visual short-term memory tasks, while phonological storage is separate — related
• The two-factor STM/WM structure holds for both younger (8-10) and older (11-13) children — related
• Small between-task relative to within-task interference in dual-task studies supports functional separation of phonological and visuospatial working memory, and newer experiments led Cowan's group to add specialized verbal and visual resources to the embedded-processes account — related
• Short-term storage capacity increases from two units at ages 3-4 to four units at ages 10-11 when executive operations are minimal — related