Note Taking¶

Strategy · All strategies
Evidence · 3 claims (3 for) · 10 studies (6 quant-synthesis, 4 causal), q3–q4 · 5 of 10 report an effect size

Description¶

Note taking is the practice of recording key ideas during a lecture, reading, or multimedia presentation, typically involving selection of important information, paraphrasing, and organization into a personal structure. It serves two functions: encoding (processing material deeply at the moment of learning) and storage (creating an external record for later review). Variants include linear notes, structured outlines, Cornell notes, concept maps, and sketchnoting.

Design Implications¶

Note taking improves learning primarily when it requires generative processing — paraphrasing, organizing, and connecting ideas — rather than verbatim transcription [~S]. The encoding benefit is largest when learners lack prior knowledge and must actively select and structure content; the storage benefit depends on notes actually being reviewed, ideally with retrieval practice rather than passive rereading [+S]. Because taking notes while listening competes for limited working memory, instruction should manage load through chunking and pauses Cognitive overload degrades learning. [+S].

Context¶

Requirements¶

• Source material presented at a pace that permits selection and paraphrasing (pauses, slides, or recordings help)
• Instruction in note-taking technique itself — many students, especially novices, take poor notes without explicit teaching
• A follow-up use for the notes (review, summarizing, exam preparation), or the storage function is wasted

Constraints¶

• Verbatim transcription produces weak encoding; learners who transcribe often learn less than those who paraphrase [~S]
• Note taking during fast, dense presentations can overload working memory and reduce learning compared with just listening Cognitive overload degrades learning. [-S]
• Providing full instructor notes or slides can eliminate the encoding benefit entirely — learners given complete materials take no notes and encode less [~S]
• Laptop note taking invites verbatim transcription and off-task multitasking more than handwriting [~M]
• For learners with strong prior knowledge, the encoding benefit shrinks because selection is already effortless [~W]

Implementation Variability¶

• Guided notes / skeletal outlines: instructor provides structure; learners fill in — reduces load for novices but risks shallow processing if completion becomes mechanical
• Note-taking then summarizing: a second pass that forces consolidation (Summarization)
• Collaborative notes: shared documents distribute the recording load and expose learners to others' selections
• Multimedia note taking: prompts to take notes during video, with pauses, counteract the passivity of video consumption

Target Learners¶

• Middle school through university students encountering new conceptual material [+S]
• Novices benefit most from guided structures; experts can self-organize
• Students with working memory or processing-speed difficulties need scaffolded formats (Accommodations) such as guided notes or permission to record

Target Learning Goals¶

• Factual and conceptual knowledge retention from lectures and texts
• Study skills and self-regulation: notes are the raw material for later distributed practice [+S]
• Discipline-specific literacy: learning what experts in a field consider worth recording

Instructions¶

1. Brief learners on the purpose and format before the session (Advance Organizers)
2. Present material in segments with pauses for recording and paraphrasing
3. Require generative formats — paraphrase, questions in the margin, or Annotating — rather than transcription
4. Follow with a consolidation activity: summarize the notes, or convert them into questions for later self-testing
5. Build review of notes into later sessions using spaced retrieval rather than rereading Distributed practice improves retention. [+S]

Related Strategies¶

• Annotating — the text-based counterpart: marking and commenting on a source rather than recording from a presentation
• Summarizing — a post-hoc compression of notes that deepens the encoding benefit
• Concept Mapping — a graphical note format that makes relationships explicit Concept mapping improves learning. [+M]
• Retrieval Practice — the most effective way to use notes after the fact
• Assign guided or scaffolded note-taking to be completed while watching lecture videos to keep video viewing active rather than passive
• Advise students on note-taking conditionally: consider cognitive ability, lecture format, and note-taking method rather than recommending note-taking universally

Examples¶

• Cornell Notes system — page divided into cues, notes, and summary columns; widely adopted in K–12 study-skills curricula (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_Notes)
• Guided lecture notes in introductory STEM courses — instructor-provided partial outlines that students complete, reducing transcription load while preserving generative processing
• Perusall (https://www.perusall.com) — social annotation platform where note taking on readings is visible, shared, and graded

Key Sources¶

• Kiewra, K. A. (1989). A review of note-taking: The encoding-storage paradigm and beyond. Educational Psychology Review, 1(2), 147–172. doi:10.1007/bf01326640
• Mueller, P. A., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2014). The pen is mightier than the keyboard: Advantages of longhand over laptop note taking. Psychological Science, 25(6), 1159–1168. doi:10.1177/0956797614524581
• Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. doi:10.1177/1529100612453266
• Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). Eight ways to promote generative learning. Educational Psychology Review, 28(4), 717–741. doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9348-9