Pair erroneous examples with prompts that require learners to identify, explain, correct, or reflect on errors, while monitoring complexity to avoid overload¶

Strategy · All strategies
Evidence · 3 claims (1 for, 2 mixed) · 5 studies (2 quant-synthesis, 1 causal, 1 review, 1 associational), q2–q4 · 1 of 5 report an effect size · 2 claims rest on one study

Description¶

The review finds that prompts requiring learners to engage actively with embedded errors often promote deeper processing, but that this benefit must be balanced against cognitive load. It reports that "prompts that require learners to identify, explain, correct, or reflect on errors often promote deeper learning" while cautioning that "they may also shift the balance from productive engagement toward cognitive overload, particularly when the material is complex". The review codes twelve prompt categories, including explain/argue, reflect, identify, and correct.

Design Implications¶

Context¶

Requirements¶

• Prompt design must match learners' prior knowledge, since demands originating from prompts are closely connected to learners' prior knowledge

Constraints¶

• May induce cognitive overload when the material is complex

Target Learners¶

• school students in grades two to eleven
• university students

Target Learning Goals¶

• deeper processing of errors
• negative and positive knowledge acquisition

Affordances¶

• Negative Knowledge Theory Osser

Claims¶

• Prompting learners to self-explain improves understanding and problem solving on immediate tests by a moderate average amount, with little evidence yet on delayed or classroom gains. [+M]
• Learning with erroneous examples often imposed higher cognitive load than correct examples or problem-solving [~W]
• Erroneous examples show no general learning benefit over correct examples in most comparisons, but outperform them for negative knowledge in some studies [~W]

Related Strategies¶

• Erroneous Examples

Examples¶

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Key Sources¶

• Sonja Dieterich, Stefan Rumann, Marc Rodemer. (2025). Conditions for Effective Learning from Erroneous Examples: A Systematic Review. Educational Psychology Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-025-10071-x