Study of Written Models¶

Strategy · All strategies
Evidence · 4 claims (3 for, 1 mixed) · 13 studies (5 causal, 3 quant-synthesis, 3 review, 1 associational, 1 theoretical), q1–q4 · 2 of 13 report an effect size · 1 claim rests on one study

Description¶

Study of written models asks learners to closely examine exemplary texts — their formats, structures, tones, vocabulary, and sentence patterns — and then imitate or adapt those features in their own writing. The strategy treats expert writing as a Demonstration in text form: the model makes visible what a successful product looks like, and guided analysis makes its reasoning and craft explicit. It is especially valuable for learners unfamiliar with a genre, who otherwise must infer its conventions from vague instructions alone.

Design Implications¶

Models work the way worked examples do in problem solving: they eliminate unguided search by showing a complete, correct product before learners attempt their own Example-problem sequences reduce cognitive load. [+M]. But the benefit depends on analysis, not just exposure — learners who explain why a model works (its moves, its structure) gain more than those who merely read it Self-explanation improves conceptual understanding. [+S]. Models should therefore be paired with annotation, comparison, and imitation tasks rather than presented as reading material.

Context¶

Requirements¶

• High-quality, authentic models of the target genre, ideally more than one Multiple contrasting cases support abstraction. [+M]
• Guided analysis prompts that direct attention to specific craft features (structure, tone, sentence patterns)
• An imitation or application task immediately following analysis (Practice)
• Feedback on how well learners' imitations capture the model's features (Provide Feedback)

Constraints¶

• Overreliance on a single model can anchor learners to one structure and suppress voice and creativity [-M] — contrasting multiple models mitigates this
• Weak or inauthentic models teach flawed conventions as readily as good ones
• Benefits diminish for experienced writers who already know the genre's conventions Guidance becomes less effective as learner expertise increases. [~M]
• Copying surface features without understanding function produces formulaic, low-transfer writing [-M]

Implementation Variability¶

• Mentor texts: published works studied for craft moves, common in writing workshop approaches
• Imitation exercises: sentence-level or paragraph-level mimicry of a model's syntax or structure
• Contrasting pairs: comparing a strong and weak model to sharpen criteria (Non-Examples)
• Progressive independence: moving from full models to partial models to no model as competence grows (Fading)

Target Learners¶

• Novice writers and students with low literacy skills, who lack internalized genre knowledge [+S]
• Adult and second-language learners encountering unfamiliar academic or workplace genres
• Less beneficial for advanced writers, for whom heavy modeling can be redundant or constraining [~M]

Target Learning Goals¶

• Genre awareness: recognizing the conventions, formats, and registers of a text type
• Procedural writing skill: acquiring reusable structural and syntactic moves
• Stylistic development: expanding vocabulary and sentence-structure repertoire

Instructions¶

1. Select one or more authentic models of the target genre, matched to learners' proficiency level.
2. Present the model as a Demonstration — read it aloud or display it while naming its key features.
3. Guide analysis with prompts that require learners to explain the model's choices (structure, tone, transitions), leveraging Self-Explanation.
4. Compare multiple models to help learners abstract the genre's underlying patterns rather than one text's idiosyncrasies.
5. Assign an imitation task (Practice) in which learners apply the identified moves to new content.
6. Provide feedback specifically on how well the imitation captures the model's craft features (Provide Feedback), then fade the model as competence grows.

Related Strategies¶

• Sentence Combining — a complementary skill-focused writing strategy from the same evidence base
• Use Worked Examples — the problem-solving analogue: study a complete solution before producing one
• Process Writing — models supply the product knowledge that process instruction assumes

Examples¶

• Writing workshop mentor texts (e.g., Lucy Calkins' Units of Study, Heinemann) — published excerpts are studied for craft moves, then imitated in students' own pieces.
• "They Say / I Say" templates (Graff & Birkenstein, W. W. Norton) — academic writing moves presented as imitable sentence templates; widely used in first-year composition.
• National Writing Project (nwp.org) — teacher consultants model the study of mentor texts as a core professional development practice.

Key Sources¶

• Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 445–476. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.445
• Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., & Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(4), 879–896. doi:10.1037/a0029185
• Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.
• van Gog, T., & Rummel, N. (2010). Example-based learning: Integrating cognitive and social-cognitive research perspectives. Educational Psychology Review, 22(2), 155–174. doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9134-7