Exploratory multi-group analyses suggest competence-related paths differ by educational level and gender, with heterogeneity concentrated downstream of intention¶

Claim · All claims
Evidence · 1 study · associational r2 · q2
Currency · newest study 2026 · not yet checked against its sources · not reviewed by a person

Subclaims¶

q2 i? CC negatively predicted perceived risk only among graduate students, whereas its negative direct association with use behavior appeared exclusively among undergraduates. → Liu Y 2026

Evidence¶

Liu Y 2026¶

Liu Y, Meng M and Zhang Y (2026) The competence paradox: negotiating ease, risk, and creative identity in text-to-image generative AI use among art and design students. Front. Psychol. 17:1858187. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858187

q2 · i? · associational · r2

Exploratory multi-group SEM by educational level (undergraduate vs graduate subgroups). The article states these analyses are "strictly exploratory rather than confirmatory, given the limited subgroup sizes" and no formal measurement invariance testing.

"CC negatively predicted PR only among graduate students, whereas its negative direct association with UB appeared exclusively among undergraduates."

Discussion¶

Learner Variables¶

• Gender — moderator: an instructional effect differs by group

Related Claims¶

• The competence paradox: creative competence positively supports intention but shows a significant negative direct effect on actual use behavior — a broader claim this one bears on
• Structural paths did not differ significantly across AI usage-frequency groups, though exploratory coefficients varied numerically — related
• Main structural paths remain substantively unchanged after controlling for gender, major, and AI tool use frequency — related
• Focal paths are robust to background controls, which did not directly predict AI integration intention — related
• Exploratory stage-of-study analyses: undergraduate year level is positively associated with AI-related disengagement, and the GPA-band pattern is stronger in postgraduate/research students for active engagement and perceived learning impact — related
• Perceived risk negatively predicts use behavior and operates as a stage-sensitive deterrent, activated at submission and evaluation rather than initial exploration — related