Across Kirkpatrick Levels 1 and 2, most studies found no statistically significant differences between observer and active participant roles in simulation-based education¶

Claim · All claims
Evidence · 1 study · review r3 · q3
Currency · newest study 2026 · not yet checked against its sources · not reviewed by a person

Subclaims¶

q3 i? Narrative synthesis of 15 studies (1,799 participants) found most studies reported no significant between-role differences at Levels 1 and 2; no study assessed Levels 3 or 4. → Amechghal A 2026

Evidence¶

Amechghal A 2026¶

Amechghal A, Naciri A, Takhdat K, Loubbairi S, Mellouki A, Lahlou L, Nassik H. (2026). The impact of the learner role in healthcare simulation-based education on learning outcomes: a systematic review. J Educ Eval Health Prof. https://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2026.23.24

q3 · i? · review · r3

Systematic review (PROSPERO CRD42024611988) searching five databases for January 2018-November 2024 studies comparing learner roles in healthcare simulation, synthesized narratively: "644 active participants and 709 observers" were reported across the 15 included studies.

"Of 648 records, 15 studies involving 1,799 participants met the inclusion criteria; role allocation was specifically reported for 644 active participants and 709 observers."

Discussion¶

Related Claims¶

• Reviewed peer-tutoring simulation studies mostly reached only Kirkpatrick Level 2, with no assessment of behavior change or clinical-practice results — related
• Knowledge acquisition and retention generally did not differ significantly between observer and active participant roles, though decay patterns differed across studies — a narrower finding that bears on this claim
• At Kirkpatrick Level 1, satisfaction, perceptions, anxiety, and learning flow did not differ significantly between roles, but emotional arousal favored active participants — possibly the same claim (merge candidate)
• Attitudinal outcomes did not differ significantly between roles across most studies, with isolated exceptions in self-efficacy and 3-month perceived learning transfer — a narrower finding that bears on this claim
• Skills outcomes mostly showed no between-role differences, with active participant advantages limited to delayed technical skills, non-technical affective outcomes, and role-continuity effects — a narrower finding that bears on this claim