Preschoolers gradually learn to cooperate more with high-competitive than low-competitive opponents in the Chicken game¶

Claim · All claims
Evidence · 1 study (2 entries) · causal r2 · q3 · i2–i3
Currency · newest study 2026 · not yet checked against its sources · not reviewed by a person

Subclaims¶

q3 i2 Preschoolers' cooperation depended jointly on opponent type and learning over time, with higher cooperation toward the high-competitive opponent emerging in later blocks. → Zhang 2026 q3 i3 Preschoolers showed higher cooperation rates when facing the high-competitive opponent than the low-competitive opponent overall. → Zhang 2026 (2)

Evidence¶

Zhang 2026¶

Zhang, R., Zhang, L., Hao, X.-M., Dreher, J.-C., & Qu, C. (2026). Learning to adaptively cooperate through social interactions during childhood and adolescence. npj Science of Learning. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-026-00423-9

q3 · i2 · causal · r2

Repeated-measures ANOVA on cooperation (Swerve) rates per 10-trial block for 52 preschoolers (Mage = 5.88) interacting with both opponents. The Opponent × Block interaction was significant ("F (2.29, 117.14) = 4.00, p = .016"), ηp² = 0.07, with block 3-4 differences favoring HCO (d = -0.39 and d = -0.46).

"We found a significant Opponent × Block interaction, F (2.29, 117.14) = 4.00, p = .016, 𝜂𝑝2 = 0.07, indicating that preschoolers’ cooperation depended jointly on opponent type and learning over time."

Zhang 2026 (2)¶

Zhang, R., Zhang, L., Hao, X.-M., Dreher, J.-C., & Qu, C. (2026). Learning to adaptively cooperate through social interactions during childhood and adolescence. npj Science of Learning. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-026-00423-9

q3 · i3 · causal · r2

Main effect of Opponent in the same ANOVA: "participants exhibited higher cooperation rates when facing HCO than LCO", ηp² = 0.18, F (1, 153) = 11.77, p = .001, d = -0.24. No main effect of Block (p = .277).

"We also observed a significant main effect o f opponents, F (1, 153) = 11.77, p = .001, 𝜂𝑝 2 = 0.18, indicating that participants exhibited higher cooperation rates when facing HCO than LCO ( d = -0.24, SE = 0.01, p < .001)."

Discussion¶

Related Claims¶

• Learning-rate asymmetries between opponent types reverse across grade groups, with a non-monotonic age trend — related
• Preschoolers' Chicken game choices are best explained by reward-based learning with a higher learning rate for the competitive opponent — related
• School-age children and adolescents distinguish competitive from cooperative opponents, with cooperation peaking in late childhood — a broader claim this one bears on
• Model support shifts from reward-based learning in early primary school to belief-based opponent tracking from grades 4-5 onward — related