Visual-spatial working memory predicts higher-order QNC (Level II/III) but not basic numerical skills, and is linked to Grade 3 math only indirectly¶

Claim · All claims
Evidence · 1 study · associational r2 · q3
Currency · newest study 2009 · checked against its sources 2026-10-20 (automated, 1 of 1 entry) · not reviewed by a person

Subclaims¶

q3 i? The visual-spatial sketch pad did not significantly predict QNC Level I, but its path to QNC Level II/III became significant in the final restricted model. → Krajewski 2009 q3 i? In this longitudinal observational path model, visual-spatial working memory had no significant direct path to Grade 3 math achievement; its association ran indirectly through higher-order QNC (a path significant only in the reduced final model), which shows prediction, not that it causes math achievement. → Krajewski 2009

Evidence¶

Krajewski 2009¶

Krajewski, K., & Schneider, W. (2009). Exploring the impact of phonological awareness, visual-spatial working memory, and preschool quantity-number competencies on mathematics achievement in elementary school: Findings from a 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103(4), 516-531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2009.03.009

q3 · i? · associational · r2

In the reduced final structural equation model (fit: Chi²[4] = 0.75, p = .95), the visual-spatial sketch pad's path to QNC Level II/III became significant at p < .01, whereas in the initial model it "did not significantly predict QNC Level I ( = .17, p > .05)".

"Interestingly, the paths from phonological awareness to QNC Level I and from visual-spatial sketch pad to QNC Level II/III became significant (p < .01) in this restricted model."

Discussion¶

Learner Variables¶

• Spatial Ability — predictor: learners who differ on it differ in outcomes
• Visual Processing — predictor: learners who differ on it differ in outcomes

Related Claims¶

• Phonological awareness has no direct effect on higher-order QNC (Level II and above) or Grade 3 math achievement once QNC skills are modeled, confirming the isolated number-words hypothesis — related
• QNC Level I predicts QNC Level II/III, which in turn predicts Grade 3 mathematics achievement; QNC Level I also retains a direct path to Grade 3 math — related
• Visuospatial memory did not predict word reading achievement in any grade, providing a discriminative contrast with mathematics — related
• Verbal working memory directly and positively predicts math performance in grades 3 and 4 — related
• Previous domain knowledge accounts for most of the variance in later achievement, considerably reducing the predictive impact of IQ and WM — related
• Working memory fully mediates the effects of math anxiety and attention on children's non-verbal Numerical Operations — related
• Kindergarten phonological awareness explains about 34% of the variance in basic numerical skills (QNC Level I) one year later — related
• Spatial ability predicts algebra word problem performance above and beyond its general relation to mathematics ability — related