Individual- and school-level theories of change for exclusion-reduction interventions¶

Theory · All theories
Evidence · 6 claims (6 for) · 8 studies (5 quant-synthesis, 2 causal, 1 review), q2–q4 · 2 of 8 report an effect size · 5 claims rest on one study

Description¶

The review organises how exclusion-reduction interventions might work through two levels of change. At the school level, interventions may target the "school climate", "creating a school climate that promotes supportive relationships and encourages positive behaviour". At the individual level, interventions may directly change students' disruptive, violent, or aggressive behaviour or target risk factors such as truancy, for example using anger management or cognitive behavioural therapy techniques. The review notes that primary evaluations rarely report theoretical foundations; the previous review categorised most interventions as based on a cognitive behavioural framework or ecological systems theory.

Design Implications¶

Context¶

Requirements¶

• Interventions must be school-based, delivered on school premises or with at least one component implemented in the school setting

Constraints¶

• Theoretical foundations were not commonly reported in the primary evaluations, so mechanism attributions rest on limited information

Target Learners¶

• School-aged students (approximately 4–18 years) in mainstream primary and secondary schools

Target Learning Objectives¶

• Reducing disruptive, violent, or aggressive behaviour
• Reducing disciplinary school exclusion

Claims¶

• School-based interventions produce a small but statistically significant reduction in school exclusion [+W]
• Effects on secondary behavioural outcomes (conduct problems, delinquency, substance use) are negligible or non-significant [+W]
• Interventions are more effective for general suspensions and in-school exclusion than for severe sanctions such as permanent exclusion and out-of-school suspension [+W]
• The 2018 review reported a larger pooled effect (SMD = 0.30) that was not sustained at longer-term follow-up [+W]
• Four implementation themes emerged from UK process evaluations: intervention format, policy consistency, staff buy-in, and perceived effectiveness [+W]
• A brief online empathic-discipline exercise for teachers halved suspensions in one randomized field experiment, while its preregistered replication found a small, marginal overall effect but narrowed group disparities [+W]

Related Theories¶

• Three theoretical perspectives characterising targeted academic interventions: social learning, cognitive developmental, and pedagogical theory

Examples¶

• Support exclusion-reduction interventions with strong implementation strategies and whole-school engagement

Key Sources¶

• Valdebenito, S., H. Gaffney, M. J. Arosemena‐Burbano, S. Hitchcock, D. Jolliffe, and A. Sutherland. 2025. “School‐Based Interventions for Reducing Disciplinary School Exclusion. An Updated Systematic Review.” Campbell Systematic Reviews 21: 1–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.70063