Theories

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Canonical theories

The 200 pages other theories attach to.

• A conceptual model deriving transfer from all-or-none learned common and falsely-common task elements and the product-moment correlation - The model treats tasks as sets of mutually independent hypothetical elements whose extension corresponds to average mastery time.
• Activity theory models learning as participation in a collective activity system whose elements dynamically interact - The article presents activity theory, tracing it to Vygotsky and Leont'ev and using Engestrom's (1987) graphical model of a human activity system.
• Activity theory: a mediated activity system framework for analyzing cognition in context - The paper presents activity theory, originating with Leont'ev and extended by Cole, Engestrom, Nardi, Kuutti, and Kaptelinin, as a descriptive framework centere
• Adaptive Cycles Framework - Adapted from ecological systems theory, the adaptive cycles framework describes learning as moving through four non-linear phases — problematization, reorganiza
• Adolescent Brain Development - Adolescent brain development is marked by a maturational mismatch — the limbic system's reward and emotion circuitry matures years before the prefrontal cortex'
• Adolescent Peer Group Structure - Adolescent peer relationships are organized through overlapping structures — small, interaction-based cliques and larger, reputation-based crowds — with individ
• Applications of Knowledge Tracing Beyond Student Learning - Beyond resource recommendation and adaptive learning, the survey states "the KT methods can be expanded to be utilized in any systems that necessitate continuou
• ARCS Model of Motivational Design - Keller's ARCS model holds that learner motivation depends on four conditions — Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction — and provides a systematic pr
• ARCS strategy sub-component taxonomy (four components, three sub-components each) - The digest presents ARCS as a two-level taxonomy for designing motivating instruction.
• Attribution Theory - Attribution Theory holds that a learner's motivation after success or failure depends less on what actually caused the outcome than on what the learner believes
• Bayesian Knowledge Tracing (Two-State Hidden Markov Model) - The survey describes Bayesian Knowledge Tracing (BKT), introduced by Corbett and Anderson, as a special case of the Hidden Markov Model with learning parameters
• Behaviorism - Behaviorism is a learning theory that defines learning as a change in observable behavior produced by environmental stimuli and reinforcement contingencies.
• Bioecological Model of Human Development - Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model holds that development is driven by sustained proximal interactions occurring within a nested set of environmental systems,
• Bloom's Taxonomy - Bloom's Taxonomy classifies learning goals into cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains, each organized as a hierarchy from simpler to more complex levels
• Boundary Crossing Learning - Boundary crossing explains learning that occurs when people move between, or bring into contact, sociocultural practices with different norms, tools, and ways o
• Co-constructionism requires an active individual, an active environment, and culture - The article reports Cole and Wertsch's (1996) argument that researchers overfocused on the Vygotsky–Piaget individual versus social genesis debate while the car
• Cognitive Apprenticeship - Cognitive apprenticeship is the theory that complex thinking is learned through modeled expert performance, coached participation, scaffolding, articulation, re
• Cognitive Flexibility Theory - Cognitive Flexibility Theory is a pattern for teaching in ill-structured domains by repeatedly revisiting concepts across multiple cases, perspectives, and cont
• Cognitive Load Theory - Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) proposes that learning is constrained by the limited capacity of working memory.
• Cognitivism - Cognitivism holds that learning is a change in internal mental structures — how information is attended to, encoded, organized in memory, and retrieved — rather
• Commognition - A discursive theory of mathematical thinking (communication + cognition) holding that mathematical thinking is not a private mental process but a form of commun
• Communities of Innovation - A Community of Innovation is a group focused on producing innovative output together, distinguished by named characteristics at the individual, group, and organ
• Complementarity: choice and control as mutually enhancing opposites in student assignment - The guide's organizing framework is complementarity, "wherein opposites are attracted and completed by each other and thereby serve as mutual enhancements." App
• Cone of Experience (Concrete-to-Abstract Media Selection) - Dale's Cone of Experience arranges learning experiences along a continuum from concrete, direct experience to abstract, symbolic (verbal) experience, as guidanc
• Connectivism - Connectivism holds that in a networked, digital age, learning is the process of forming and navigating connections between specialized information sources — inc
• Constructionism - Constructionism holds that learning is most effective when a learner actively builds a public, shareable, inspectable artifact — not just any active engagement,
• Constructivism - Constructivism is the broad view that learners actively build understanding by connecting new experiences and information to what they already know.
• Constructivism as a theory of knowledge and learning with individualistic, social, and combined branches - The paper presents Constructivism as a theory of knowledge and learning concerned with what one knows and how one comes to know, treating knowledge as internall
• CRESST model of problem solving - The problem-solving assessment model from the National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, used as this study's theoretical frame
• Criterion-referenced testing, as defined by Glaser, measures mastery of defined abilities rather than relative standing among test takers - The article presents criterion-referenced testing as an approach to reading evaluation in which the measurement scale is anchored at mastery and absence of defi
• Criterion-referenced versus norm-referenced grading as two competing conceptions of grading - The article frames grading as a choice between two conceptions: grading students in competition with one another (norm-referenced, on a curve) versus grading in
• Critical Constructive Feedback Processing - A five-stage information-processing model of what has to happen — noticing, decoding, making sense, acting upon, and making progress — for feedback on a wrong a
• Critical Maker-Entrepreneurialism - A synthesis of critical youth studies, identity-in-practice, humanization, and funds-of-knowledge frameworks describing how youth makers can redefine entreprene
• Critical Pedagogy - Critical pedagogy applies critical theory to education, treating teaching and learning as inherently political and knowledge and language as never fully neutral
• Critical Speculative Design Pedagogy - A framework for justice-oriented science learning that combines speculative design (imagining and prototyping alternative futures) with critical consciousness-r
• Critical Thinking - Critical thinking is the skill and disposition to analyze the reliability and validity of information — asking key questions, evaluating evidence, reasoning log
• Cross-curricular model of multimedia learning - The article's organizing framework holds that multimedia learning is grounded in multi-mode expression, an activity isomorphic to cross-curricular activities.
• Cultural Processes to Inequality: Identification and Rationalization - A framework the article adopts from Lamont, Beljean and Clair (2014) in which inequality is produced through two meso-level cultural processes: identification (
• Cultural-Historical Activity Theory - Cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT) explains learning and development as mediated by tools, roles, and communities within a historically evolving activit
• Deep Learning Knowledge Tracing Models - The survey reviews deep learning KT in four sub-categories: deep knowledge tracing with recurrent networks, memory-aware tracing such as DKVMN with key and valu
• Design Layers Theory - Design Layers Theory holds that an instructional design is not a single unified artifact but a stack of interacting layers — model/content, strategy, message, c
• Designerly Stances - A framework describing six dimensions along which a teacher's approach to a problem of practice can range from a "beginning designer" stance (fixed problem, rou
• Developmental Research Designs — Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, and Sequential - Studying change over time requires choosing among three research designs — cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential — each with a different tradeoff betwee
• Dewey's democratic education - The article grounds its egalitarian program-design argument in Dewey's democratic education, quoting Democracy and Education on "that type of education which gi
• Dialogue Knowledge Tracing (dialogueKT) Framework - DialogueKT is the task the article proposes, which "analyzes student discourse within the knowledge tracing (KT) framework".
• Direct versus Mediated Effects of Retrieval Practice - A distinction the chapter uses to organize retrieval research.
• Dual Coding Theory - Dual Coding Theory proposes that verbal and nonverbal information can be processed in partly distinct but connected representational systems.
• Dual-Process Account of Discovery in Writing - Writing generates new understanding through two largely independent processes — spontaneous, dispositionally-guided text production that synthesizes new ideas f
• Ecological Paradigm of Interdisciplinary Learning - A framework that studies and designs for interdisciplinary learning as a group-level, socio-material process distributed across learners, artifacts, and institu
• Educational Psychology as Both Art and Science - Educational psychology bridges the scientific study of learning with the art of teaching practice — research findings inform practice, and practice raises new q
• Elaborative Retrieval Account - Proposed by Carpenter (2009), this account holds that "semantic elaboration occurs during the process of retrieval and enhances subsequent recall".
• Ellsworth's Framework of Educational Change - Ellsworth's organisation of the classic educational change models around a communication model, in which a change agent communicates an innovation to an intende
• Episodic Context Account of Retrieval-Based Learning - Proposed by Karpicke et al.
• Epistemic Commitments - Dynamic, student-originated values (not disciplinary ideals imposed from outside) that shape which models students build, use, and trust — functioning as forwar
• Epistemic Games - A framework describing knowledge construction as playing generative, rule-like "games" — recognizable sets of moves, constraints, and strategies organized aroun
• Epistemic Injustice - Epistemic injustice describes wrongs done to people specifically in their capacity as knowers — through testimonial injustice (unwarranted credibility discounti
• Equations as Language - Making sense of a physics equation is analogous to reading a text with comprehension — moving through textually-explicit, textually-implicit, and scriptally-imp
• Essentialism and Perennialism (Educational Philosophy) - Essentialism holds that a universal core of essential skills and knowledge must be taught to all students through a teacher-centered, testing-focused, back-to-b
• Executive Function Development - Executive functions — inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory — are self-regulatory processes that emerge gradually from early childhood t
• Existentialism (Educational Philosophy) - Existentialism holds that individuals are free to determine their own meaning and identity rather than possessing one given in advance; educationally it emphasi
• Expectancy-Value Framework for Teachers' Motivation to Use AI Applications - A theoretical application of Expectancy-Value Theory to why teachers do or do not adopt AI applications in education.
• Expectancy-Value Theory - Expectancy-Value Theory holds that the two most immediate predictors of a learner's motivation to engage in a task are their expectancy of succeeding at it and
• Experiential Learning Theory - Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory models learning as a cyclical, dialectical process in which concrete experience and abstract conceptualization, and reflecti
• Expertise Reversal Effect - The expertise reversal effect is the idea that instructional guidance that helps novices can become redundant or counterproductive as learner expertise increase
• Exponential Forgetting Curve with Item Difficulty - The article adopts a variant of the exponential forgetting curve, in which recall is binary and recall probability decays exponentially with time since last rev
• Feedback loops: purposeful, bidirectional, iterative interactions that transform knowledge, actions, or goals - The report defines a feedback loop as an interaction between two or more parties that is purposeful, bidirectional, and iterative and transforms the knowledge,
• Feuerstein's mediated learning: human mediation as prerequisite for direct learning - The paper presents Feuerstein's theory of mediated learning as filling a gap in Vygotsky's account of the human mediator.
• First Principles of Instruction - First Principles of Instruction is M. David Merrill's synthesis of common ground across instructional design theories, holding that learning is most effective,
• Five basic educational philosophies: traditional-conservative versus contemporary - The article frames teachers' educational beliefs with five basic approaches: "perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, existentialist education and reconstruc
• Five basic elements make cooperative learning work: positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual accountability, interpersonal and small group skills, and group processing - The report presents five essential basic elements that must be "precisely structured into every learning group" for cooperative learning to work.
• Five Essential Supports framework for improving student learning - The agenda describes the Consortium's Five Essential Supports framework, in which five dimensions of school organization are "known to be linked to improving st
• Five structural forms for systems of feedback loops: generator, amplifier, activator, aggregator, catalyzer - The report proposes a taxonomy of structures, described as the overarching forms that systems of multiple feedback loops take toward a larger goal.
• Foreign Language Anxiety - Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope's (1986) account of foreign language classroom anxiety as a situation-specific anxiety, built from communication apprehension, test an
• Four Boundaries of Learning Community (Access, Relationships, Vision, Function) - Because "learning community" is used inconsistently across research and practice, West and Williams propose defining any community by which of four boundaries a
• Four levels of cross-cultural awareness, with believability achieved only at the intellectual-analysis and immersion levels - The essay discriminates four levels of cross-cultural awareness: Level I, awareness of superficial or very visible cultural traits such as stereotypes, gained t
• Four-part typology of adult learning based on knowledge structure and primary agency - The paper proposes a typology distinguishing four basic types of learning along two axes: whether the knowledge structure is pre-established or situational, and
• Four-Phase Model of Interest Development - Hidi and Renninger's model holds that interest develops in four phases, from a transient situational spark through to a stable, well-developed personal interest
• Four-Phase Taxonomy of Knowledge Tracing Variants - The survey's second organizing axis groups extensions of the fundamental models by the learning phase they add: "we classify and review current variants of fund
• Framework of five essential supports and contextual resources for school improvement - The CCSR framework holds that five in-school supports are all essential for improving student learning: leadership acting as a catalyst, parent-community ties,
• Fuller's Concerns Theory of Teacher Development - New teachers pass through a predictable sequence of concerns — self-survival, then the teaching task, then impact on students — with the most effective and expe
• Funds of Knowledge - Funds of knowledge holds that households and communities — especially those of minoritized and working-class families — hold historically accumulated, practical
• Future Directions for Retrieval-Based Learning Research - The chapter closes by "highlighting four possible avenues": deepening understanding of mechanisms and linking them to global models of memory; resolving how to
• Germane load operationalized as learning effects measured by test-score increases - The article operationalizes germane load as learning effects: the portion of working memory resources devoted to schema construction during a learning phase, wh
• Gilligan's Ethic of Care - Gilligan proposed a morality of care — centered on responsibility, interdependence, and responsiveness to others' needs — as a complement to Kohlberg's justice-
• Ginott's Congruent Communication - Ginott's communication skills approach holds that learners can control their own behavior when teachers let them, and that congruent communication — sane messag
• Glasser's Choice Theory and Cooperative Learning - Glasser's reality-therapy approach holds that effective classroom managers build an environment students would regret leaving — through mutually agreed-upon rul
• Goal Orientation Theory - Goal Orientation Theory holds that the reason a learner pursues an achievement goal — mastering material versus outperforming or avoiding negative judgment from
• Guided practice framework: five interacting elements for analyzing close-to-the-classroom work with teachers - The authors define guided practice as face-to-face, close-to-the-classroom work on teaching and learning to teach, carried out under labels such as clinical sup
• Hanvey's five-dimension framework for an attainable global perspective - The essay organizes a global perspective into five dimensions: perspective consciousness, state-of-the-planet awareness, cross-cultural awareness, knowledge of
• Hermeneutical Injustice: Incidental and Systematic - The article's account, following Fricker (2007), of hermeneutical injustice as occurring when a gap in collective interpretive resources disadvantages someone i
• Historical Reasoning Framework - A framework treating historical reasoning as six interrelated aspects — asking historical questions, making evidence-based claims, using sources, using substant
• Humanizing Mathematics as Boundary Blurring - The author's conceptualization of humanizing mathematics, contrasted with approaches that bring cultural knowledge into school mathematics.
• ICAP theory: a taxonomy of four cognitive engagement modes with a hierarchical learning prediction - ICAP defines four modes of cognitive engagement — Interactive, Constructive, Active, and Passive — operationally differentiated by students' overt behaviors and
• Idealism (Educational Philosophy) - For Idealists, ideas rather than sensory experience are the only true reality; teaching therefore focuses on moral excellence and the "subjects of the mind," de
• Informal Learning - Informal learning is self-directed, unofficial learning "pulled" by the learner's own perceived need rather than "pushed" by a predetermined curriculum, and acc
• Information Processing Theory - Information Processing Theory treats learning as the movement and transformation of information through attention, working memory, encoding, storage, and retrie
• Informational (error-estimation) account of self-controlled feedback benefits - The article contrasts two explanations for why self-controlled knowledge of results (KR) aids motor learning.
• Instinct, Drive, and Arousal Theories - Three historically successive biological accounts of motivation — behavior driven by unlearned instincts, by drives that restore homeostasis, or by maintaining
• Intelligence Testing: Uses and Limits - Standardized intelligence tests are among the most reliable instruments in psychology and predict a range of academic and occupational outcomes, but they must b
• Interactional theory of therapeutic relationship formation and change - Interactional theory (attributed to Strong, 1982, and Claiborn & Lichtenberg, 1989) holds that therapeutic change is generated in the process of forming the rel
• Internal mediation model of teacher statements, self-talk and self-concepts - The article articulates an internal mediation model in which the influence of teachers' statements on children's academic self-concepts follows a pathway: the s
• Joyce and Showers' technical coaching: a cyclical training extension for transferring new teaching skills - The paper analyzes Joyce and Showers' model, which borrows coaching from athletics and treats it as the next step after training.
• Knowledge in Pieces - Knowledge in pieces holds that learners' intuitive ideas, including misconceptions, are many small context-cued knowledge elements that are refined and reorgani
• Knowledge Objects and Knowledge Practices - A framework for analyzing collaborative knowledge-building through the evolving artifacts a group constructs (knowledge objects) and the epistemic practices the
• Knowledge Tracing as a Learner-Modeling Task - The survey defines knowledge tracing (KT) as a learner-modeling task over sequences of exercise interactions: "knowledge tracing aims to monitor students’ evolv
• Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development - Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory holds that moral reasoning develops through six invariant, hierarchically-ordered stages grouped into three levels, as
• Kounin's Classroom Management Research - Kounin's tradition of classroom-management research found that the distinction between more and less effective classroom managers lies mainly in what they do to
• Krashen's five hypotheses of second language acquisition as principles for bilingual program design - The packet operationalizes Cummins's and Canale & Swain's theories using Steve Krashen's (1981) five hypotheses: the acquisition-learning hypothesis (two separa
• Krashen's input hypothesis and Monitor Model of second language acquisition - Krashen's account of second language acquisition: subconscious acquisition from comprehensible input a little beyond the learner's current level, with conscious
• Krashen's Monitor Model: five hypotheses distinguishing subconscious acquisition from conscious language learning - The article presents Krashen's theory of second language acquisition as an explanatory framework built on five hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning distinction,
• L2 Motivational Self System - Dörnyei's account of second-language motivation as the pull of an ideal L2 self, the pressure of an ought-to L2 self, and the learner's immediate L2 learning ex
• Language Acquisition Theory - Competing accounts of how children acquire language — behaviorist/learning-theory, nativist, and social-interactionist — converge on the view that acquisition d
• Learner-Centered Paradigm of Education - The learner-centered paradigm replaces a time-fixed, group-based, sorting-oriented school system with one that holds attainment constant and lets pace and path
• Least restrictive environment defined by two components: proximity to the regular educational environment and opportunity to interact with non-handicapped children - The report defines the LRE concept from P.L.
• Leitner Queue Network - The Leitner Queue Network is the article's stochastic model of a spaced repetition system, embedding an exponential forgetting curve in a network of queues, one
• Locus of Control - Locus of control is a person's generalized belief about whether their outcomes are caused mainly by their own effort (internal) or by forces outside their contr
• Logistic Knowledge Tracing Models (LFA, PFA, KTM) - The survey's logistic branch covers Learning Factor Analysis, Performance Factor Analysis and Knowledge Tracing Machines.
• Long's interaction hypothesis - Long's claim that comprehensible input drives second language acquisition and that negotiating communication problems in conversation, through clarification req
• Macro-, Micro- and Meso-Level Stations of Inequality Production - A three-level account, drawn from Lamont, Beljean and Clair (2014), of "three essential stations to understand the production of inequalities": macro-level mate
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that human motivation is organized by prepotency, from physiological needs through safety, love/belonging, and esteem to se
• Materialized Action - Learning emerges from the intra-action of a learner's body and a material's own properties (tension, spring-back, thickness) across nested levels of a made arti
• Mean-Recall Approximation for the Leitner Queue Network - The mean-recall approximation is the article's heuristic that treats each Leitner deck as an M/M/1 queue, replacing each item's true delay with an exponential d
• Mechanistic Reasoning - Mechanistic reasoning explains a phenomenon by identifying the interacting entities, properties, and activities — organized in space and time — that cause it, i
• Metacognition - Metacognition is knowledge about one's own thinking and the ability to regulate cognitive strategies accordingly; it develops gradually across childhood, with d
• Model of bilingual education: outcomes as interaction of background, child input, and educational treatment factors - The paper integrates its two hypotheses into an overall model of bilingual education in which "educational outcomes are explained as a function of the interacti
• Moral Dimensions of Instructional Design - Osguthorpe and colleagues' argument that designing instruction is a moral endeavour, and their framework of five designer consciences (craft, membership, sacrif
• Multiple Intelligences Theory - Howard Gardner's theory holds that intelligence is not a single general capacity but at least eight relatively independent abilities, with individuals typically
• NBPTS Five Core Propositions for Accomplished Teaching - The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards defines accomplished teaching across five propositions — commitment to students, subject and pedagogical
• Onto-Epistemic Heterogeneity - Onto-epistemic heterogeneity holds that learners' diverse ways of being (ontology) and ways of knowing (epistemology) are interconnected resources that should b
• Ontological Alignment - Coordinating between students' existing ideas and the representational system of a computational modeling tool — treating a tool's structure (what it makes visi
• Performance Technology - Performance Technology treats instruction as one of several possible interventions for closing a performance gap, and requires analyzing the organizational syst
• Person-Centered Psychology - A humanistic, Rogerian framework holding that unconditional positive regard, empathic listening, and facilitator congruence create the relational safety needed
• Personal Inquiry - A model of technology-supported science inquiry organized as an 8-phase cycle (Find My Topic through Reflect on My Experience) that is deliberately designed to
• Perspective consciousness: recognizing that one's view of the world is shaped, partial, and not universally shared - Dimension 1 defines perspective consciousness as "the recognition or awareness on the part of the individual that heor she has a view of the world that is not u
• Piaget's Theory of Moral Development - Piaget held that children's moral reasoning shifts from a heteronomous morality of constraint — rules as fixed, authority-given, and enforced by immanent justic
• Play and Cognitive Development - Children's play progresses through developmentally-linked cognitive types (functional, constructive, symbolic, and games with rules) and increasingly social par
• Pragmatism and Progressivism (Educational Philosophy) - Pragmatism holds that reality is evolving rather than fixed, and that thought must produce action toward practical problems; Progressivism, its educational desc
• Prescriptive model of hierarchical task-adapted knowledge organization for selective information retrieval - The article formulates a prescriptive model in which knowledge is subdivided into units where "a few information items in any unit are elaborated by further des
• Problem-Solving Followed by Instruction - Students attempt a problem before receiving instruction on the canonical solution, so that the attempt activates prior knowledge and exposes knowledge gaps that
• Process Model of Self-Regulated Learning (Schmitz and Wiese) - The study is built on the process model of self-regulated learning by Schmitz and Wiese, an adaptation of Zimmerman's conception.
• Psychosocial Theory of Identity Development - Erikson's psychosocial theory holds that healthy development unfolds through eight life stages, each defined by a crisis between two opposing forces whose resol
• Real world versus pretend world activities as two distinct ZPD contexts - The paper's central organising distinction is between two activity types dominating children's learning.
• Realism (Educational Philosophy) - Realism holds that reality exists independent of the human mind and is understood through careful observation and logic; teaching therefore centers on basic ski
• Reflexive Noticing - A discourse-level mechanism by which teacher professional dialogue shifts from stabilization talk (defending a frozen "common sense" about students) toward poss
• Research Design Taxonomy — Quantitative/Qualitative and Descriptive/Correlational/Experimental - Two overlapping ways of classifying a research study — quantitative vs. qualitative (or mixed) by data type, and descriptive vs. correlational vs. experimental
• Retrieval Practice Experiment Architecture and Factors - The chapter's organizing framework: learners study materials, a retrieval practice condition completes initial retrieval activities while a control does not, an
• Rightful Presence - Rightful presence holds that equitable STEM learning spaces require treating marginalized learners as legitimate members with the power to reshape community nor
• Schmidt's noticing hypothesis - Schmidt's claim that second language acquisition requires conscious noticing of features in the input, that learners who notice more learn more, and that notici
• Schon's reflective coaching: learning design-like practice through a dialogue of words and actions - The paper analyzes Schon's account of how master practitioners induct novices into design-like practices.
• Self-Determination Theory - Self-Determination Theory (SDT) explains motivation in terms of the degree to which behavior is experienced as autonomous, competent, and socially connected.
• Self-Efficacy Theory - Self-Efficacy Theory holds that a learner's task-specific belief in their own capability to succeed — distinct from general self-confidence or actual ability —
• Self-originated elaboration account of acceptance without comprehension - The article's preferred formulation is a cognitive response account in which acceptance rests on the recipient's own thoughts rather than on message meaning.
• Self-Regulated Learning - Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) explains learning as a cyclical process in which learners set goals, choose strategies, monitor progress, and reflect on outcomes
• Semantic network theory of learning - Knowledge is represented as semantic networks of nodes and links; learning consists of building new structures by constructing new nodes and interrelating them
• Situated Learning - Situated learning holds that knowledge is inseparable from the social, material, and cultural contexts in which it is used.
• Six participant roles in feedback loops: translators, facilitators, users, informants, advisors, designers - The report identifies recurring participant roles that contribute to knowledge transformation in feedback loops.
• Skill acquisition theory in second language learning - DeKeyser's application of cognitive skill-learning theory to second languages: explicit declarative knowledge is proceduralized through practice and then, with
• Social constructionism as the basis for collaborative writing instruction - The paper defines social constructionism as "a philosophy of knowledge whichasserts that truth is not something eternal" but a product of human activity, holdin
• Social Learning Theory - Social Learning Theory, developed primarily by Albert Bandura, proposes that learning occurs not only through direct reinforcement (as behaviorism holds) but al
• Social learning theory expectancy framework (generalized and specific expectancies) - Rotter's social learning theory, as applied in this article, conceptualizes behavior as determined by generalized expectancies, such as locus of control (intern
• Sociocultural Theory - Sociocultural theory, developed from Vygotsky's work, holds that higher-order thinking develops first through social interaction and is then internalized, with
• Sociomaterial Agency of Tools - A new-materialist perspective holding that instructional tools and materials are non-neutral actors that actively shape what learners can think and do, carrying
• Stages of Cognitive Development - Piaget's theory that children construct their own understanding of the world by progressing through four universal, sequential stages of qualitatively different
• State education agency LRE policies cluster around three goals: influencing out-of-district placement, controlling institutional programs, and deinstitutionalization - The report organizes the state policies it surveyed into a three-goal taxonomy.
• Steffe's Number Sequences and Multiplicative Double Counting - A constructivist model of how children's numerical reasoning progresses through three number sequences (initial, tacitly nested, explicitly nested), and how the
• Strength and Retrieval Effort Account (New Theory of Disuse and Bifurcation) - This account holds that effortful retrieval strengthens knowledge and that "The degree to which knowledge is strengthened is assumed to be proportional to the a
• Student Orientation Toward Achievement - Covington's self-worth typology classifies students by how they combine motivation to approach success with motivation to avoid failure, yielding four profiles
• Swain's output hypothesis - Swain's claim that comprehensible input is not enough for second language acquisition: learners must be pushed to produce precise, coherent and appropriate outp
• Teaching Styles as Warmth and Control - Soar and Soar's framework treats classroom warmth and control as two independent dimensions rather than opposite ends of one continuum, yielding four distinct t
• Technical Taxonomy of Fundamental Knowledge Tracing Models - The survey's first organizing axis sorts fundamental KT models by technical route: "the proposed taxonomy splits existing KT methods into three categories" — Ba
• Technology Integration Levels (SAMR / RAT / PIC-RAT) - A family of frameworks (RAT, SAMR, PIC-RAT) for judging whether a specific use of technology in instruction merely replaces a prior practice or meaningfully imp
• The 'Languaging in the Content Areas' (LICA) thesis as a formulating theory of post-elementary reading - A still formulating theory of post-elementary reading, called the 'Languaging in the Content Areas', or LICA, thesis (Manzo and Sherk, submitted manuscript).
• The developmental interdependence hypothesis: L2 competence depends partly on L1 competence at the onset of intensive L2 exposure - The developmental interdependence hypothesis is the paper's central explanatory account of how first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) skills relate across
• The five essential supports framework: five mutually reinforcing organizational dimensions that enable or inhibit improvement in classroom practices - The five essential supports framework specifies five school- or center-level organizational subsystems—effective leaders, collaborative teachers, involved famil
• The five-stage teacher technology adoption process: Entry, Adoption, Adaptation, Appropriation, Invention - The report proposes that teachers, even enthusiastic ones, typically pass through five distinct stages before becoming education technology integrators and inno
• The number sequence hierarchy (INS, TNS, aTNS, ENS, GNS) defined by units coordination and splitting - The article organizes students' concepts of number as a hierarchy — INS, TNS, aTNS, ENS, GNS — defined by the cognitive structures of units coordination and spl
• The threshold hypothesis: two levels of bilingual competence mediate cognitive and academic effects of bilingualism - The threshold hypothesis holds that there are threshold levels of linguistic competence bilingual children must attain, such that "there may be threshold levels
• The von Restorff effect in text marking - The von Restorff effect is used to explain how underlining and other text marking function by isolating information against a homogeneous background, directing
• The Wiles-Bondi Curriculum Management Plan (CMP) for middle school change - The CMP is a management framework for implementing and sustaining middle school programs, drawing on Tyler and Taba and the accreditation process format.
• The world as an interconnected system: replacing simple cause and effect with complex interaction - Dimension 4 argues the world is best conceived as a system of interconnected elements rather than a machine or organism.
• Theoretical Domains Framework as an organizing framework for behavioral determinants of intervention engagement - The Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) is "an integrative framework that draws from 33 behavior change theories to characterize and evaluate behavioral determi
• Three aspects of children's language knowledge hypothesized to support fluent reading acquisition - In analyzing how home-school language switching affects reading development, the paper distinguishes three general aspects of children's knowledge of language h
• TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) - TPACK holds that effective teaching with technology requires an integrated understanding of content, pedagogy, and technology together, not mastery of the three
• Traditional versus modern philosophies distinguished by who determines ends and means - Apps organizes the four general philosophies by a structural axis: idealism and realism are traditional, while experimentalism and existentialism are modern.
• Transfer-Appropriate Processing Account of Retrieval Practice - Transfer-appropriate processing holds that performance is best when initial learning processing matches the processing required on a later final assessment.
• Transspection: imagining oneself in a role within a foreign culture, a step beyond empathy - Drawing on Lerner's account of empathy and Maruyama's concept of transspection, the essay distinguishes empathy, the capacity to imagine oneself in another role
• Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory holds that intelligence has three empirically separable components — analytical, creative, and practical — so a learner can
• Turiel's Social Domain Theory - Turiel's social domain theory holds that children differentiate three distinct kinds of social knowledge from early in development — moral, societal, and person
• Two-stage descriptive-plus-simulation modeling framework for Employment Service local office operations - The report proposes a two-stage modeling framework: a descriptive model capturing office activities, priorities and flows, and a simulation model built on it th
• Usage-Based Second Language Acquisition - The usage-based account of second language learning: grammar develops gradually from experience of the language, as learners generalise from frequent, concrete
• Varieties of Testimonial Injustice (Wanderer and Hookway) - A taxonomy the article compiles in its Table 1.
• Vector hypothesis: each higher taxonomy level integrates only a subset of the elements of lower-level behaviors - The authors propose that Knowledge's Type A behaviors be viewed as a vector of unique elements, with each higher level integrating only a subset of those elemen
• Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: development is historically situated, culturally determined, and proceeds through internalization of social interaction - The article presents Vygotsky's core theoretical position: unlike Piaget's focus on biological and structural development, Vygotsky "stressed the contribution o
• Well-Structured vs. Ill-Structured Problems - Problems vary in how much information and how clear a solution procedure they provide; well-structured problems support algorithms with guaranteed correct solut
• Willingness to Communicate in a Second Language - MacIntyre et al.'s (1998) model of L2 willingness to communicate: the situational readiness to speak, shaped by a pyramid of enduring and momentary influences s
• Womanist Restorying - A Black feminist/womanist storytelling methodology in which learners deconstruct dominant narratives about who belongs in a domain, analyze whose perspectives t
• Zone of Proximal Development as an assessment and instruction tool - The ZPD is defined by Vygotsky as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential d
• Zone of Proximal Development as learners' responsiveness to culturally appropriate mediation - In this interview's account, the ZPD is what the instrumental method becomes when brought into school: education delivers "appropriate forms of cultural mediati
• Zone of Proximal Development: the gap between independent and assisted problem solving - The paper presents Vygotsky's zone of proximal development as the construct at the centre of his sociocultural account of development.
• Zones of Mathematical Play - A descriptive, largely conceptual framework proposing that players in a well-designed mathematical digital game pass non-linearly through five zones — from pure

The full machine-readable listing is this folder's index.md on GitHub.