Habitual phone use heightens smartphone vigilance but does not directly increase checking frequency; it lengthens use duration only when notifications are hidden¶

Claim · All claims
Evidence · 1 study (3 entries) · causal r2 · q3 · i2 medium
Currency · newest study 2026 · not yet checked against its sources · not reviewed by a person

Subclaims¶

q3 i2 HPU positively predicted SV in the base model (β = 0.263, p = .007). → Liao 2026 q3 i? HPU had no significant direct effect on PUF (β = 0.007, p = .915), and SV mediated the HPU–PUF relationship (β = 0.150, p = .025). → Liao 2026 (2) q3 i2 HPU significantly predicted APUD only in the NH group (β = 0.200, p = .043). → Liao 2026 (3)

Evidence¶

Liao 2026¶

Liao, H.-H., Liu, T.-C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026). External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3

q3 · i2 · causal · r2

Base PLS-SEM model (N = 84) testing habit effects; the quote shows HPU's "positive influence on SV" and the null direct path to frequency.

"Although HPU had a positive influence on SV ( β = 0.263, p = .007, H4 supported) and a small positive effect on APUD (β = 0.163, p = .067, H5b marginally supported), no such effect was noted on PUF (β = 0.007, p = 0.915, H5a rejected)"

Liao 2026 (2)¶

Liao, H.-H., Liu, T.-C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026). External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3

q3 · i? · causal · r2

Base-model mediation analysis reported in the Discussion; the authors interpret that checking follows from awareness of potential messages rather than habit directly causing use.

"SV was found to mediate the relationship between HPU and PUF ( β = 0.150, p = .025). This implies that students check their phones more frequently because they are aware of potential messages and not because the habit itself directly causes more frequent use"

Liao 2026 (3)¶

Liao, H.-H., Liu, T.-C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026). External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3

q3 · i2 · causal · r2

Two-group PLS-SEM results; habit predicted longer average use duration only when notifications were hidden, and the HPU→SV path was significant in NH (β = 0.286, p = .022) but only marginal in NR (β = 0.316, p = .081).

"there's only a significant positive effect on APUD in the NH group ( β = 0.200, p = .043)"

Discussion¶

Related Claims¶

• Smartphone settings moderate how vigilance translates into phone use: vigilance raises checking frequency more when notifications are revealed, and use duration more when notifications are hidden — related
• Students with visible notifications check their phones more frequently in class than students with hidden notifications — related
• Phone-use behavior under hidden notifications is highly heterogeneous: about half of NH students abstained entirely, and most NR checks were brief glances — related
• Notification-hidden students showed longer average phone-use duration and no performance difference versus notification-revealed students — related
• Phone-use frequency and duration increase phone-use mental effort, which negatively affects learning performance, mediating the behavior–performance link — related