Phone-use frequency and duration increase phone-use mental effort, which negatively affects learning performance, mediating the behavior–performance link¶

Claim · All claims
Evidence · 1 study (2 entries) · causal r2 · q3 · i3 large
Currency · newest study 2026 · not yet checked against its sources · not reviewed by a person

Subclaims¶

q3 i3 Both PUF (β = 0.528) and APUD (β = 0.521) positively predicted PUME, and PUME negatively predicted learning performance (β = −0.337, p = .009). → Liao 2026 q3 i? PUME negatively mediated both behavior–performance relationships (PUF: β = −0.178, p = .022; APUD: β = −0.175, p = .011), with direct effects non-significant (indirect-only mediation). → Liao 2026 (2)

Evidence¶

Liao 2026¶

Liao, H.-H., Liu, T.-C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026). External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3

q3 · i3 · causal · r2

Base PLS-SEM structural paths (N = 84); the quote shows both phone-use behaviors raised mental effort and mental effort lowered quiz performance. f² values for the behavior→effort paths were large (0.572 and 0.557).

"both PUF and APUD had a positive effect on PUME ( β = 0.528, p < .001, H9a supported; β = 0.521, p < .001, H9b supported); in addition, PUME had a significant negative effect on learning performance (β = −0.337, p = .009, H10 supported)"

Liao 2026 (2)¶

Liao, H.-H., Liu, T.-C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026). External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3

q3 · i? · causal · r2

Bootstrapped mediation tests (5,000 resamples) in the base model; direct behavior→performance paths were not significant, which the authors classify as indirect-only mediation.

"Two mediation effects were also significant, indicating that PUME negatively mediated the relationship between phone-use behaviors and learning performance (β = −0.178, p = .022, H11a supported; β = −0.175, p = .011, H11b supported)"

Discussion¶

Related Claims¶

• Students with visible notifications check their phones more frequently in class than students with hidden notifications
• Phone-use behavior under hidden notifications is highly heterogeneous: about half of NH students abstained entirely, and most NR checks were brief glances
• Smartphone settings moderate how vigilance translates into phone use: vigilance raises checking frequency more when notifications are revealed, and use duration more when notifications are hidden
• Notification-hidden students showed longer average phone-use duration and no performance difference versus notification-revealed students — related
• Habitual phone use heightens smartphone vigilance but does not directly increase checking frequency; it lengthens use duration only when notifications are hidden — related
• Computer-based distractions (phone calls, texts, emails, notifications) do not significantly impair comprehension of lecture videos at 1x or 2x speed — reports the opposite