Smartphone settings moderate how vigilance translates into phone use: vigilance raises checking frequency more when notifications are revealed, and use duration more when notifications are hidden¶

Claim · All claims
Evidence · 1 study (2 entries) · causal r2 · q3 · i3 large
Currency · newest study 2026 · not yet checked against its sources · not reviewed by a person

Subclaims¶

q3 i3 The positive effect of SV on PUF was stronger in the NR group than in the NH group (moderation β = −0.468, p = .001, f² = 0.106; group paths β = 0.477 vs 0.389). → Liao 2026 q3 i3 The positive effect of SV on APUD was stronger in the NH group than in the NR group (moderation β = 0.655, p = .006, f² = 0.124; group path β = 0.504 in NH only). → Liao 2026 (2)

Evidence¶

Liao 2026¶

Liao, H.-H., Liu, T.-C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026). External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3

q3 · i3 · causal · r2

PLS-SEM moderation test on all 84 participants; the Group×SV interaction on phone-use frequency was significant, with the SV→PUF path stronger in NR (β = 0.477) than NH (β = 0.389).

"the positive effect of SV and PUF on the NR group was higher than that on the NH group (β = −0.468, p = .001, H8a supported)"

Liao 2026 (2)¶

Liao, H.-H., Liu, T.-C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026). External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3

q3 · i3 · causal · r2

PLS-SEM moderation test on all 84 participants; the Group×SV interaction on average phone-use duration was significant, with SV→APUD significant only in the NH group (β = 0.504, p < .001; NR β = 0.136, p = .593).

"the positive effect of SV and APUD on the NH group was higher than that on the NR group ( β = 0.655, p = .006, H8b supported)"

Discussion¶

Related Claims¶

• Phone-use frequency and duration increase phone-use mental effort, which negatively affects learning performance, mediating the behavior–performance link
• Habitual phone use heightens smartphone vigilance but does not directly increase checking frequency; it lengthens use duration only when notifications are hidden — related
• Notification-hidden students showed longer average phone-use duration and no performance difference versus notification-revealed students — related
• Phone-use behavior under hidden notifications is highly heterogeneous: about half of NH students abstained entirely, and most NR checks were brief glances — related
• Students with visible notifications check their phones more frequently in class than students with hidden notifications — related