Notification-hidden students showed longer average phone-use duration and no performance difference versus notification-revealed students¶

Claim · All claims
Evidence · 1 study (2 entries) · causal r2 · q3
Currency · newest study 2026 · not yet checked against its sources · not reviewed by a person

Subclaims¶

q3 i? The NH group showed longer APUD than the NR group, but the difference was not significant (d = −0.290, p = .095). → Liao 2026 q3 i? Learning performance did not differ significantly between the NR and NH groups (d = −0.185, p = .399). → Liao 2026 (2)

Evidence¶

Liao 2026¶

Liao, H.-H., Liu, T.-C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026). External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3

q3 · i? · causal · r2

Welch-corrected t-test on average phone-use duration in the same two-group classroom experiment; the "difference was not significant" despite the NH group's longer mean duration (40.574 vs 25.764 s in Table 1).

"Although participants in the NH group showed a longer APUD than those in the NR group, the difference was not significant (alternative hypothesis: NR < NH; t = − 1.327, df = 56.552, p = .095, Cohen's d = − 0.290, H2 rejected)"

Liao 2026 (2)¶

Liao, H.-H., Liu, T.-C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026). External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3

q3 · i? · causal · r2

Welch-corrected t-test on the 16-item quiz in the same experiment found "a significant difference" was absent between groups; equivalence was not tested. Means were 8.071 (NR) and 8.667 (NH).

"the two groups did not have a significant difference in learning performance (Alternative hypothesis: NR ≠ NH; t = − 0.847, df = 81.601, p = .399, Cohen's d = − 0.185, H3 supported)"

Discussion¶

Related Claims¶

• Habitual phone use heightens smartphone vigilance but does not directly increase checking frequency; it lengthens use duration only when notifications are hidden — related
• Smartphone settings moderate how vigilance translates into phone use: vigilance raises checking frequency more when notifications are revealed, and use duration more when notifications are hidden — related
• Phone-use frequency and duration increase phone-use mental effort, which negatively affects learning performance, mediating the behavior–performance link — related
• Students with visible notifications check their phones more frequently in class than students with hidden notifications — related
• Phone-use behavior under hidden notifications is highly heterogeneous: about half of NH students abstained entirely, and most NR checks were brief glances — related