Criterion-referenced versus norm-referenced grading as two competing conceptions of grading¶

Theory · All theories
Evidence · 2 claims (1 for, 1 mixed) · 1 study (1 design), q1 · 0 of 1 report an effect size · 2 claims rest on one study

Description¶

The article frames grading as a choice between two conceptions: grading students in competition with one another (norm-referenced, on a curve) versus grading in terms of how well they achieve the explicit standards set by the teacher (criterion-referenced). This distinction organizes the whole memo and motivates contract grading, which anchors grades to absolute criteria rather than relative rank. The article presents it as the first 'choice point' a teacher faces in designing grading.

Design Implications¶

Context¶

Requirements¶

The teacher must set explicit standards for achievement that students can be evaluated against

Constraints¶

Target Learners¶

university students

Target Learning Objectives¶

explicit achievement of course objectives rather than competitive ranking

Claims¶

Criterion Grading Supports Cooperation [+M]
Ranking marks have little meaning unless the percentage of students admitted to each rank accords with a recognized standard [+W] — attached 2026-10-24 from Kohl et al. (1911), which proposed "The distinction between ranking marks and passing marks".
After Michigan adopted a standard ranking scale, the percentage of failures remained below 3 per cent instead of approaching 10 per cent [~W]

Criterion-referenced versus norm-referenced tests as two distinct assessment purposes

Examples¶

Grading by contract: students propose specific work and criteria within teacher-presented options

Key Sources¶

Fricke, B. G. (1976). Grading by Contract. Memo to the Faculty, n57. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED127854

Page metadata

Field	Value
`type`	`theory`
`title`	`Criterion-referenced versus norm-referenced grading as two competing conceptions of grading`
`description`	`The article frames grading as a choice between two conceptions: grading students in competition with one another (norm-referenced, on a curve) versus grading in terms of how well they achieve the explicit standards se...`
`status`	`review`
`canonical`	`True`
`generated`	by `claude/unspecified` on `2026-09-25`
`trust`	unverified — no one has confirmed this page's content
`sources`	1 — `fricke-1976`

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