Skip to content

Elements

1,057 elements. Browse them by first letter, or use Search.

A · B · C · D · E · F · G · H · I · J · K · L · M · N · O · P · Q · R · S · T · U · V · W · Y · Z · 0-9

Canonical elements

The 364 pages other elements attach to.

  • Accommodations - Adjustments to how content is presented, how learners respond, or how the learning environment is structured that remove barriers for learners with disabilities
  • Act - is the execution phase of a challenge-based or inquiry cycle, where learners move from investigation and planning into producing, testing, sharing, or implement
  • Act It Out - Learners physically enact a concept, process, scenario, or role, converting verbal content into embodied performance.
  • Activation - Learners are encouraged to recall and activate prior knowledge to prepare for new learning.
  • Adaptive Difficulty - Adaptive difficulty adjusts task challenge in response to learner performance so work remains demanding enough to promote growth without becoming discouraging o
  • Adaptive Learning - Adaptive learning tailors content, pacing, support, or task sequence in response to evidence about a learner's current performance, needs, or prior knowledge.
  • Adaptive Mastery Learning - Learners progress through levels of difficulty with personalized challenges and just-in-time feedback.
  • Addressing Student Misconceptions - Students of all ages carry misleading or outright wrong prior beliefs into a lesson, some well-documented and predictable, others idiosyncratic — anticipating t
  • Advance Organizers - Concept maps, outlines, or visual guides that help learners structure new information before instruction.
  • After-School Teacher Research Labs - Study groups in which teacher-researchers and university-based researchers "discuss research findings, and to plan, develop, and support innovations in instruct
  • Agentic Data-Engagement Positions - A set of four proactive roles — active researcher/consumer, analyst, author, and socio-scientific communicator — that learners can take up when engaging with re
  • Analogies - Analogies connect a new idea to a more familiar situation, structure, or experience so learners can reason about the unfamiliar in terms they already understand
  • Analogies and prior knowledge activation - Uses comparisons to familiar concepts to support understanding.
  • Anchored Instruction - Anchored instruction situates learning around a shared, meaningful scenario or "anchor" that gives learners a concrete context for inquiry, analysis, and proble
  • Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) Model - The ABC model analyzes behavior as an environmental trigger (antecedent) producing an observable action (behavior) followed by an outcome that strengthens or we
  • Application - Learners actively apply knowledge in meaningful tasks.
  • Application of Knowledge - Learners apply concepts to real-world problems or case studies.
  • Argument Construction - Learners develop structured arguments with supporting evidence.
  • Argumentation - Learners construct logical, evidence-based arguments to support their claims.
  • Articulation - Learners verbalize their thought processes and reasoning, making their understanding — and misunderstandings — observable and open to refinement.
  • Assess performance - Measures learner progress and determines mastery of content.
  • Assessment - Assessment is the structured collection of evidence about learner understanding, performance, or progress for the purposes of feedback, decision making, grading
  • Assessment Mechanic - The repeated in-game activity designed to elicit behaviour a log can capture and an evidence model can interpret — assessment built as a mechanic rather than bo
  • Assigned Positions - Learners are assigned a specific stance on an issue and must argue from that perspective.
  • Assigned Readings - Learners engage with pre-selected texts, articles, or book chapters to build foundational knowledge before or during instruction.
  • Attention - The design of instruction to capture, direct, and sustain learners' limited attentional resources toward content that matters for learning.
  • Audience Analysis - A front-end design activity that identifies learners' prior knowledge, characteristics, needs, and context so instruction can be matched to who will actually le
  • Audiobooks - Audiobooks deliver text content through spoken audio, allowing learners to access material through listening rather than (or alongside) reading.
  • Automaticity - Automaticity is the state in which a skill or recognition process executes with minimal conscious attention and working-memory demand, freeing cognitive resourc
  • Belonging - Belonging is learners' perception of being accepted, valued, and socially connected within a learning community; it functions as a motivational precondition tha
  • Case Studies - Case studies are the element in which learners analyze a concrete scenario, incident, or example in order to reason about concepts, decisions, or consequences.
  • Case Study - Learners analyze a real or hypothetical scenario to apply concepts.
  • Case-Based Learning - Learners analyze real-world scenarios to apply theoretical concepts.
  • Certificate fields differentiated by developmental level and subject - The digest explains that the National Board rejected a single general certificate, noting that "its holder is proficient in teaching all subjects to all student
  • Challenge Identification - Challenge identification is the element in which learners or instructors surface the central obstacle, tension, or problem to be addressed.
  • Check In - A brief, structured interaction that surfaces learners' current understanding, emotional state, or progress so instruction can be adjusted in response.
  • Child-Directed Speech - Child-directed speech — exaggerated pitch, careful articulation, and simplified structure used when speaking with infants and toddlers — increases infant attent
  • Choice Boards - A choice board is a visual matrix of learning activities from which learners select a required subset, offering structured autonomy over how they practice and d
  • Class Discussion - Structured conversations where learners analyze and reflect on content.
  • Coaching - Instructors provide individualized, ongoing support and guidance as learners perform a task, offering hints, feedback, and modeling tailored to current performa
  • Cognitive Apprenticeship - Cognitive apprenticeship is the element in which learners observe expert thinking, practice with coaching, and gradually assume more responsibility.
  • Cognitive Conflict - Deliberately introduces contradictions or challenges to a learner's existing knowledge to provoke deeper reasoning.
  • Cognitive Load Management - Cognitive load management is the element in which instruction is designed to reduce unnecessary processing and preserve effort for learning-relevant work.
  • Cognitive Strategies - Cognitive strategies are deliberate mental procedures — rehearsal, elaboration, organization, and monitoring — that learners use to select, construct, and retai
  • Collaboration - Collaboration is the short-form canonical target for learners working together toward a shared product, understanding, or decision.
  • Collaborative Decision-Making - Collaborative decision-making is the element in which learners evaluate options together and negotiate a shared choice or recommendation.
  • Collaborative Discussion - Collaborative discussion is the element in which learners build understanding together through shared talk, comparison of ideas, and negotiated meaning.
  • Collaborative Inquiry - Collaborative inquiry is the element in which learners investigate a question together through shared sensemaking and evidence use.
  • Collaborative Learning - Learners work in structured teams to solve problems and complete tasks.
  • Collaborative Problem-Solving - Learners work together in small groups to analyze an authentic problem, negotiate meaning, and construct a shared solution.
  • Collective Concept Mapping - A group activity in which members pool individual interpretations to construct shared concept maps representing conceptions agreed upon by the group, making the
  • Communication Channels - Communication channels are the element in which learners use designated tools or spaces to coordinate, discuss, ask questions, and share updates during a learni
  • Comparing Cases - Comparing cases is the element in which learners inspect two or more examples, solutions, texts, or scenarios side by side in order to notice meaningful similar
  • Competency-Based Learning - Competency-based learning is the element in which progression is organized around demonstrated competence rather than seat time.
  • CoMTA and MathDial Math Tutoring Dialogue Datasets - The article evaluates dialogueKT on two existing math tutoring dialogue datasets.
  • Concept Map - A concept map is a node-and-link diagram that externalizes relationships among ideas, making the structure of a knowledge domain visible.
  • Concept Mapping - Concept mapping is the element in which learners represent concepts and their relationships visually, typically as nodes and labeled links.
  • ConcepTest - A multiple-choice question targeting a single conceptual difficulty, used with student voting and peer discussion to expose and confront misconceptions.
  • Conceptual lenses for examining cultural perspectives - Conceptual lenses are a curricular element the article recommends for graduate leadership coursework.
  • Conceptual Overviews - Conceptual overviews are elements that present the broad structure, central idea, or organizing logic of a topic before moving into details.
  • Conceptual Questioning - Learners answer thought-provoking questions designed to challenge assumptions and deepen understanding.
  • Conceptual Scaffolding - Conceptual scaffolding is the element in which learners are given temporary structures, prompts, or representations that help them understand the underlying ide
  • Concrete Modeling - Concrete modeling is the element in which physical or tangible representations are used to make abstract relationships visible.
  • Consensus Building - Structured group work in which learners negotiate, defend, and refine differing viewpoints to arrive at a shared conclusion.
  • Consensus Discussion - Learners work collaboratively to agree on a shared perspective or decision.
  • Constructed-Response Assessment Items - Completion, short-answer, and extended-response (essay) items ask students to recall and produce an answer rather than recognize one, reducing guessing but intr
  • Contextualization - Contextualization is the element in which new ideas, texts, or tasks are framed within a meaningful situation, purpose, domain, or prior experience.
  • Continuous Review - Learning materials and concepts are revisited systematically to reinforce retention and prevent forgetting.
  • Cooperative Learning - Learners work in small structured groups toward shared goals, with positive interdependence and individual accountability built into the task design.
  • Cooperative Learning Activities for Adult Learners manual with instructor-contributed scripts and handouts - A cooperative learning manual developed through the project, containing activities scripted by the Adult Learners' Training and Assistance Program instructors,
  • Create a Low-Stress Environment - Create a low-stress environment is the element of designing routines, norms, and spaces that reduce unnecessary anxiety during learning.
  • Create a Relaxed Learning Environment - Create a relaxed learning environment is the element of arranging social and physical conditions that support safety, calm, and participation.
  • Creating Visual Representations - Creating visual representations is the element in which learners externalize understanding through diagrams, sketches, models, or other visuals.
  • Criteria Development - Learners create rubrics or evaluation frameworks for assessment.
  • Daily Before-and-After SRL Learning Diary - A daily online learning diary with two sections per learning day.
  • Data Analysis - Data analysis is the element in which learners inspect, interpret, organize, or transform data in order to answer questions, identify patterns, or justify concl
  • Debate - Debate is the element in which learners take positions, justify them with evidence, and respond to alternatives in a structured exchange.
  • Debrief - A structured reflective conversation after an experience (simulation, discussion, case, or task) in which learners examine what happened, why, and what it means
  • Decision-Making - Learners evaluate options and make informed choices within a structured learning activity.
  • Demonstration - A demonstration presents a complete or partial model of a skill, process, or solution so learners can observe expert performance before attempting it themselves
  • Descriptive, evaluative and substantive peer criticism progression - The paper describes Bruffee's sequence of written peer criticism: descriptive (saying something about a text without judging it), evaluative (what is good and w
  • Dialogic Reading - An interactive shared-reading method in which an adult prompts children with questions, expands their responses, and gives feedback, turning storybook reading i
  • Differentiated Team Roles - Learners take on distinct, interdependent roles within collaborative work to enhance accountability, engagement, and role-specific expertise.
  • Digital Learning - Digital learning is the element in which instruction, resources, or interaction are mediated through digital tools, platforms, or networks.
  • Digital Open Badges - Digital Open Badges are portable, metadata-rich micro-credentials that recognize discrete competencies, including informal learning that traditional grades and
  • Digital Tools - Digital tools are the element in which learners use software, platforms, or digital applications to create, collaborate, practice, or receive feedback.
  • Direct instruction - Presents new content through explicit explanations, lectures, or demonstrations, with structured guidance before independent practice.
  • Discrepant Events - Discrepant events are demonstrations, observations, or scenarios that violate learner expectations in a noticeable way.
  • Discriminant function analysis (Wilks method) - A multivariate statistical technique (Wilks method) used to identify variables that maximally discriminate among outcome groups and to determine the number and
  • Discussion - Discussion is a structured verbal exchange in which learners articulate, question, and build on ideas together to construct and refine understanding.
  • Discussion Prompt - A structured question or statement that initiates meaningful conversation among learners.
  • Discussion Sections - Smaller, instructor- or TA-led sessions where learners analyze and discuss course material in depth.
  • Discussion-Based Learning - Discussion-based learning is the element in which talk, interpretation, and response are central vehicles for learning.
  • DKT-Sem: Deep Knowledge Tracing with Semantic Embeddings - DKT-Sem is the article's simpler alternative KT method for dialogues, described as a strong baseline.
  • Drill & Practice - Drill and practice is the element in which learners repeatedly perform a focused skill or response pattern until it becomes more fluent or automatic.
  • Dual Coding - Dual coding is the element in which verbal and visual representations are used together to support understanding and memory.
  • Educational Belief Scale (40 items, five philosophy sub-dimensions) - A self-report instrument the article uses to measure teachers' educational philosophy beliefs: "there are 40 items composed of five sub-dimensions that are scor
  • EduData and EduKTM Open-Source Knowledge Tracing Libraries - The survey's authors released two open-source algorithm libraries: "EduData that enables the download and preprocessing of KT-related datasets, and EduKTM that
  • Elaboration - Elaboration asks learners to connect new material to prior knowledge by generating explanations, examples, analogies, or associations beyond what was presented.
  • Eliciting Student Thinking - Encourages learners to express their ideas, reasoning, and problem-solving approaches verbally.
  • Embodied Choreographic Assessment - An iterative formative-assessment task in which learners collaboratively choreograph movement to represent a concept, then revise it across cycles of peer feedb
  • Emotion Regulation - Instructional supports that help learners monitor, reframe, and manage emotional states — anxiety, boredom, frustration, and stress — so that affect does not co
  • Engage - Engage is the element in which instruction opens with an activity or prompt that draws attention and establishes interest.
  • Enhance retention and transfer - Helps learners apply knowledge to new contexts through reflection and extension activities.
  • Epistemic Games: Shared-Understanding Moves - Five recurring, teachable interaction moves — knowledge sharing, perspective-taking, simulation, knowledge validation, and negotiation — that interdisciplinary
  • Epitome (Elaboration Theory) - A simplified version of the full concept is introduced first before elaborating on details.
  • EQUIP (Equity Quantified in Participation) classroom observation tool - EQUIP is a classroom observation tool that counts relatively low-inference indicators of participation — participation sequences, whole-class discussion type, t
  • Erroneous Examples - Erroneous examples are worked examples that intentionally contain a mistake for learners to identify, explain, and correct.
  • Evaluating and Justifying Mechanistic Explanations - A task in which learners judge competing explanations for a phenomenon (mechanistic, circular, teleological), decide whether each actually answers a "how" quest
  • Evidence-Based Reasoning - Learners evaluate competing models based on real-world evidence and refine their understanding.
  • Example Problem Pairs - An example problem pair presents a fully worked solution followed immediately by a similar problem for the learner to solve, alternating study of an example wit
  • Exemplars - An exemplar is a high-quality model of a finished product or performance — an essay, design, proof, or solution — that learners study to internalize quality cri
  • Exercise Breaks - Short bouts of physical activity inserted into instruction to restore attention, support memory consolidation, and improve on-task behavior.
  • Experimentation - Learners form predictions, manipulate variables, and test hypotheses against observed outcomes rather than receiving conclusions directly.
  • Expert Groups - Learners become subject-matter experts on one segment of a topic and teach that segment to peers, distributing expertise across the group.
  • Expert Modeling - Expert modeling is the element in which a skilled performer demonstrates not only what to do, but how an expert notices cues, makes decisions, and checks qualit
  • Explicit Teaching - Explicit teaching is the element in which instructors directly explain, model, and sequence key knowledge or procedures rather than leaving them to be inferred.
  • Fading - Fading is the element in which instructional support is deliberately reduced as learner competence grows.
  • Fading Scaffolding - Fading scaffolding is the element in which supports such as hints, prompts, or models are progressively reduced so that learners take on more of the task indepe
  • Feedback - Learners receive input from instructors or peers to refine their work.
  • Feelings Vocabulary - A curated set of emotion words and phrases taught explicitly so learners can identify, label, and communicate internal states with precision.
  • Final Exam - A cumulative assessment evaluating learners' mastery of the entire course material.
  • Flipped Classroom - Flipped classroom is the element in which initial content exposure happens before class so in-class time can focus on application and feedback.
  • Formative Assessment - Ongoing, low-stakes assessment to provide feedback and adjust instruction.
  • Full and completion worked examples for simultaneous-equation algebra - Two versions of the same worked algebra problems used in the study.
  • Gain attention - Engages learners with an unexpected event, question, or real-world scenario to capture focus.
  • Gamification - Gamification is the element in which points, progress indicators, challenges, or other game-like structures are used to shape participation and persistence.
  • Generation - Generation requires learners to produce an answer, word, rule, or representation themselves rather than passively reading or receiving it, strengthening memory
  • Generative Processing - Learners construct their own understanding by actively generating connections, summaries, explanations, or representations rather than passively receiving mater
  • Goal Setting - Goal setting is the element in which learners or instructors establish clear targets for performance, progress, or improvement.
  • GPT-4o Automated Dialogue Annotation with Recursive Common Core Tagging - The article annotates each student turn with correctness and KC labels using GPT-4o via simple, zero-shot chain-of-thought prompting, instructing it to summariz
  • Gradual Release - Gradual release is the element in which responsibility for performance shifts from teacher or system to learner across stages of modeling, guided practice, and
  • Graphic Organizers - Graphic organizers are visual structures that help learners sort, compare, and connect ideas.
  • Group Processing - A structured reflection in which cooperative groups evaluate how well they worked together and identify behaviors to keep or change.
  • Group Roles - Structured, assigned responsibilities within a small group that distribute the work of collaboration and make each member's contribution visible.
  • Group Work - Group work is the element in which learners work together on a shared task, product, or problem.
  • Guided Discovery - Guided discovery is the element in which learners investigate, infer, or notice patterns for themselves, but with prompts, constraints, examples, or feedback th
  • Guided Inquiry - Guided inquiry is the element in which learners investigate questions or problems with structured prompts, facilitator support, or staged resources that keep th
  • Guided Practice - Guided practice is the element in which learners attempt a task with active support before moving to independent work.
  • Hands-on Learning - Hands-on learning is the element in which learners manipulate materials, tools, or environments directly while applying ideas in practice.
  • Hints - Hints are partial prompts or cues that help learners continue a task without fully giving away the answer.
  • Hypertext Navigation - Learners explore interconnected digital content at their own pace.
  • Hypothesis Testing - Learners generate an explicit, testable prediction about an outcome or relationship, then confront evidence that confirms or disconfirms it.
  • Immediate Feedback - Immediate feedback is the element in which response information is delivered close to the learner's action so it can still shape the next step.
  • In-Class Activities - Learners engage in active, structured tasks during class to apply knowledge.
  • In-process comprehension checks embedded within the text - Comprehension checks embedded within the text at the point of reading, listed in the article's enumeration of aid types as "(4) vocabulary assistance, (5) inpro
  • Independent Study - Learners work through material, tasks, or inquiry on their own, with responsibility for pacing, effort, and self-monitoring shifted from instructor to learner.
  • Individual Accountability - Individual accountability structures cooperative work so that each member's learning and contribution is separately assessed, preventing free-riding and ensurin
  • Individual Reflection - Learners independently analyze their own thought processes, decisions, and learning experiences to build self-awareness and improve future performance.
  • Individual Response - Learners answer a question or solve a problem independently before group discussion.
  • Information Literacy - Information literacy is the element in which learners identify information needs, locate sources, evaluate credibility, and use information responsibly.
  • Inquiry - Learners investigate questions, problems, or phenomena — generating questions, gathering evidence, and drawing conclusions — rather than receiving explanations
  • Inquiry and Research - Learners investigate a topic through questioning, data gathering, and evidence evaluation to build understanding they construct rather than receive.
  • Inquiry-Based Exploration - Learners investigate open-ended problems and generate solutions.
  • Inquiry-Based Learning - Inquiry-based learning is the element in which learners investigate questions, evidence, or problems in order to build understanding through guided exploration.
  • Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) - The IMMS is one of several instruments the digest says were developed for assessing the motivational quality of instructional situations.
  • Integration - Learners reflect on and connect new learning to their own experiences, prior knowledge, and future applications.
  • Interviews - An interview is a structured conversation in which learners pose questions to an expert, practitioner, community member, or peer to gather first-hand knowledge,
  • Invention - An invention task asks learners to devise their own solution method or representation for a problem before receiving canonical instruction, preparing them to le
  • Investigate - Investigate is the element in which learners collect information, examine evidence, or test ideas to answer a question.
  • Iterative Learning - Iterative learning is the element in which learners improve through repeated cycles of attempt, feedback, revision, and retry.
  • Jigsaw - Jigsaw is the element in which parts of a topic are distributed across learners who then teach one another to assemble the whole.
  • Jigsaw Learning - Jigsaw learning is the short-form canonical target for the jigsaw-style distribution of expertise and peer teaching.
  • Journaling - Journaling is the element in which learners record reflections, observations, questions, or progress over time in written form.
  • Just-in-Time Information - Instruction is provided at the point of need rather than upfront.
  • Just-in-Time Learning - Just-in-time learning is the element in which information, guidance, or resources are provided at the moment they are needed for the task at hand rather than fr
  • Justification - Justification is the element in which learners explain why a claim, choice, or solution is warranted using reasons, criteria, or evidence.
  • Justification & Argumentation - Learners defend conclusions with evidence and reasoning, constructing and critiquing arguments to build critical reasoning and conceptual understanding.
  • Knowledge map assessment of content understanding - A knowledge mapping task in which participants build a map of the game's content, scored to measure the content-understanding component of problem solving.
  • Knowledge Synthesis - Learners integrate multiple perspectives and sources to develop a cohesive understanding.
  • Knowledge-Building - Knowledge-building is the element in which learners collectively construct, refine, and extend ideas rather than only consume or repeat them.
  • Knowledge-Building Discourse - Learners engage in structured discussions to deepen understanding.
  • Learner Choice - Learner choice is the element in which learners are given meaningful options about task, process, product, or pathway.
  • Learning Analytics-Driven Feedback - Learning Analytics-Driven Feedback uses models built from learner interaction data to predict at-risk learners and surface targeted feedback to learners or inst
  • Learning Contracts - A learning contract is a negotiated written agreement in which a learner commits to specific goals, activities, resources, timelines, and evidence of accomplish
  • Learning Goals - Learning goals are explicit statements of what learners should know or be able to do after instruction, serving as the reference point for designing activities
  • Learning Management Systems - Learning management systems are the element in which course organization, materials, communication, and tracking are coordinated through an LMS.
  • Learning Mechanic - The repeated learner-facing activity at the heart of a game for learning — a design pattern, grounded in learning theory, that a concrete game mechanic instanti
  • Learning Objectives - Learning objectives are explicit statements of what learners should know or be able to do after instruction, providing direction for design, instruction, and as
  • Learning Outcomes - Learning outcomes are explicit statements of what learners should know, understand, or be able to do by the end of an instructional experience.
  • Learning Tasks - A learning task is the integrated, meaningful unit of work — a problem, project, case, or performance — that learners undertake to acquire knowledge and skill i
  • Lectures - Instructor-led presentation of content in a structured format.
  • LeitnerQ Mechanical Turk Data and Code Release - The authors release their model, evaluation and user-study code plus their experiment data: "we release (1) all model and evaluation code, (2) framework code fo
  • Listening Palette - A multimodal reflection protocol in which learners individually record noticings in whatever mode feels natural (words, sketches, gesture, movement), then build
  • Literature Review - Literature review is the element in which learners gather, evaluate, and synthesize existing sources on a topic in order to understand the current state of know
  • LLMKT: LLM-Based Knowledge Tracing for Dialogues - LLMKT is the article's knowledge tracing method: "a novel LLM-based KT method, LLMKT, that leverages the textual content in dialogues, by fine-tuning the open-s
  • Local office simulation model with nine statistical output reports - The report's central artifact is a computer simulation of a local office day, stepping through applicant interviews, job-order handling and miscellaneous tasks
  • Makerspace - A Makerspace is a physical or mobile space, formal or informal, where learners use digital and physical tools to design, build, and iterate on self-directed pro
  • Mastery criterion with remediation and retesting - A mastery criterion is a single criterion — such as a specified number of correct responses or a quality of performance — that defines when learning is complete
  • Mastery Learning - Mastery learning is the element in which progression depends on demonstrated understanding rather than time alone.
  • Mastery Progression - Learners cannot advance until they demonstrate mastery of foundational content.
  • Math Story Chart: a four-step word-problem organizer (Tell-Show-Solve-Answer and Look Back) - The Math Story Chart is a teacher-made graphic organizer based on Polya's four-step problem-solving method, with four components: Tell (the information given),
  • Media corner / flexible multimedia learning space - A prepared open classroom space equipped with multimedia tools and learning aids such as guidebooks, activity sheets, and orientation leaflets that fosters dive
  • Mental Models - A mental model is a learner's internal representation of how a system, process, or domain works, which they use to explain phenomena, predict outcomes, and reas
  • Metacognition - Metacognition is the element in which learners monitor, explain, and regulate their own thinking.
  • Metacognitive Reflection - Metacognitive reflection is the element in which learners examine how they thought, what strategies they used, where they were confused, and what they should do
  • Metacognitive Strategies - Metacognitive strategies are deliberate learner moves for planning, monitoring, checking, and revising thinking during learning.
  • Metaphors - Metaphors are explanatory comparisons that map a less familiar concept onto a more familiar image or experience.
  • Midterm Exam - A summative assessment administered at the midpoint of a course to evaluate learning progress and retention of material covered to date.
  • Misconception Probes - A diagnostic question or task designed to surface learners' incorrect intuitions so they can be confronted and revised before instruction consolidates them.
  • Mission-Based Learning - Learners engage in a structured, goal-oriented challenge framed as a mission with a clear objective, constraints, and success criteria.
  • Mnemosyne Flashcard Review Log Data - Large-scale log data from the Mnemosyne flashcard software, used by the article to compare memory models.
  • Model Revision - Learners refine their conceptual models based on evidence and feedback.
  • Modeling - Instructors or advanced learners demonstrate expert thinking and behavior so learners can observe expert performance before attempting it themselves.
  • Moderation - An instructor or facilitator guides discussions to ensure productive engagement.
  • Modified identity status interview - A modified version of Marcia's identity status interview, used in this study to classify participants into the achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusi
  • Motivational Delivery Checklist - The digest describes the Motivational Delivery Checklist, developed by Keller and Keller (1989), as "a 47-item ARCS-based instrument for evaluating the motivati
  • Multi-mode expression - Expressing understanding through combined modes of information (text, image, sound, video).
  • Multimedia Instruction - Multimedia instruction is the element in which teaching combines spoken or written language with visuals, diagrams, animation, or other media in a coordinated i
  • Multimedia Learning - Multimedia learning is the element in which learners engage with coordinated combinations of words, visuals, audio, animation, or interactive media.
  • Multimedia production project - A learning activity in which pupils design and produce a multimedia product, such as a CD-ROM encyclopedia, slide-show, home town database, botanical database,
  • Multimedia Projects - Multimedia projects are the element in which learners create artifacts that combine text, visuals, audio, video, or interaction.
  • Multiple-choice retrieval practice questions with competitive alternatives - A recognition-format retrieval practice item: a multiple-choice question whose incorrect options are competitive alternatives, intended to make recognition prac
  • Negotiation - Negotiation is the element in which learners work through competing interests, priorities, or interpretations in order to reach a decision, compromise, or share
  • Non-Examples - Non-examples are intentionally chosen instances that do not meet the target concept, criterion, or quality standard.
  • Note-Taking - Note-taking is the element in which learners record, organize, and condense information in ways that support later understanding and retrieval.
  • Objective - An objective is an explicit statement of what learners should know or be able to do after instruction, serving as the design anchor for activities, materials, a
  • Observation - Observation is the short-form canonical target for instructional activities in which learners watch people, processes, or contexts carefully in order to notice
  • Observation Shadowing - Learners observe a live or recorded performance by an expert or peer, then immediately imitate or "shadow" that performance themselves.
  • Online Learning Record (OLR): a portfolio record integrating classroom activity, assessment, and research - The OLR is described as "a portfolio record integrating classroom activity (teaching and learning), assessment, and research" (Syverson, 1995).
  • Open Educational Resources (The 5Rs) - Open Educational Resources are teaching materials licensed to grant free, perpetual permission to retain, reuse, revise, remix, and redistribute them — the "5Rs
  • Open-Ended Discussion - Facilitated dialogue where learners explore topics without predetermined answers.
  • Optional Quizzes or Discussion Sections - Supplementary activities designed to reinforce learning and provide formative feedback.
  • Part-task practice - Isolated, repeated practice of elements that require automation for efficient task performance.
  • Participant Examples - A discourse move in which a learner positions themselves as a character within a case or example under academic study, using the case to reason about their own
  • Pedagogical Agent Signaling for Feedback Salience - An embodied on-screen agent that points and gazes directly at feedback text when it appears, using social cueing rather than a generic arrow to pull elementary
  • Peer Assessment - Peer assessment is the element in which learners evaluate the work or reasoning of peers against shared criteria.
  • Peer Collaboration - Learners work together to complete tasks or solve problems, negotiating meaning and distributing cognitive effort.
  • Peer Discussion - Learners engage in structured conversations with classmates to explore, articulate, and refine ideas.
  • Peer Explanation - Learners verbalize their thinking to peers, strengthening their own understanding.
  • Peer Feedback - Peer feedback is the element in which learners respond to one another's work with comments intended to improve revision or performance.
  • Peer Instruction - Peer instruction is the element in which learners explain, compare, and revise answers with one another around conceptual questions.
  • Peer Interaction - Learners engage with one another through discussions, debates, or collaborative tasks.
  • Peer Review - Peer review is the element in which learners examine and respond to one another's work using shared criteria, prompts, or examples.
  • Peer Teaching - Learners explain concepts to peers, reinforcing their own understanding.
  • Performance Support - Performance support provides task-specific guidance at the moment of need within the work context, reducing reliance on memorized knowledge.
  • Performance-Based Assessment - Performance-based assessment is the element in which learners demonstrate knowledge or skill by performing, producing, or solving something observable rather th
  • Personalized Pacing - Personalized pacing is the element in which learners move through content or practice at different rates based on need and progress.
  • Perspective-Taking - Learners deliberately consider multiple viewpoints on an issue to build cognitive flexibility, empathy, and deeper conceptual understanding.
  • Persuasion - Learners develop techniques to convince others using logic and evidence.
  • Pete Frazer's eight guiding moves for working as a co-thinker with novice teachers - Through interviews and observations, Feiman-Nemser documented the strategies of Pete Frazer, a thoughtful support teacher who enacted his role as "co-thinker" w
  • Physical Education - Physical Education (PE) is a curricular domain in which learning goals — motor skill, tactical understanding, fitness, and dispositions — are achieved primarily
  • Portfolio - A portfolio is a purposeful, curated collection of learner work assembled over time, accompanied by reflection, used to document growth and assess competence.
  • Position Development - Learners construct and refine a defensible stance on a contested issue through evidence-based reasoning and adversarial or dialogic testing.
  • Positive Interdependence - A structural condition in cooperative learning where group members cannot succeed unless all members succeed, linking individual outcomes to shared goals.
  • Practice - Encourages learners to apply new knowledge or skills through structured activities.
  • Practice Testing - Learners actively retrieve information from memory as a learning activity, rather than rereading or reviewing material.
  • Pre-Class Preparation - Pre-class preparation is the element in which learners engage with readings, videos, prompts, or other materials before a live class session so that class time
  • Pre-Class Video/Lecture - Instructional content is delivered via video or recorded lecture before in-class activities, freeing class time for active learning.
  • Pre-Reading Activities - Pre-reading activities are tasks completed before reading in order to activate prior knowledge, establish purpose, surface key vocabulary, or prepare attention
  • Pre-Reading Questioning - Pre-reading questioning is the element in which learners preview a text through guiding questions before or during initial reading.
  • Pre-Seminar Preparation - Learners review content before engaging in discussion-based activities.
  • Precis summary notes placed alongside the basic text - Concise summary notes placed alongside the basic text that explain key concepts, key terminology, and key questions.
  • Prediction - A prediction asks learners to commit to an answer or outcome before instruction, activating prior knowledge and creating a gap that subsequent teaching resolves
  • Prior Knowledge Activation - Prior knowledge activation is the element in which learners recall, surface, or organize what they already know before engaging with new material.
  • Probing - Probing uses targeted follow-up questions to push learners beyond initial answers, exposing reasoning, surfacing misconceptions, and deepening elaboration.
  • Problem Presentation - Learners are introduced to a real-world problem to analyze and solve.
  • Problem Scenario - Learners engage with a structured real-world scenario that requires problem-solving.
  • Problem Solving - Problem solving is the element in which learners identify, analyze, and respond to a challenge by generating and evaluating possible solutions.
  • Problem-Based Learning - Problem-based learning, as an element, refers to the use of an authentic or ill-structured problem as the immediate driver of inquiry, information seeking, and
  • Procedural Information - Step-by-step instructions and just-in-time guidance to assist learners in acquiring procedural fluency.
  • Procedural Learning - Procedural learning is the element in which learners acquire stepwise routines, methods, or operations through guided performance.
  • Product - A product is the tangible artifact or performance a learner creates to demonstrate learning — the observable output that anchors assessment, feedback, and trans
  • Progress Tracking - Progress tracking is the element in which learners or instructors monitor advancement through goals, tasks, competencies, or milestones over time.
  • Progressive Disclosure - Progressive disclosure presents information in sequenced stages, revealing complexity only as the learner is ready, rather than showing everything at once.
  • Promote a Sense of Home - Promote a sense of home is the element of creating belonging, familiarity, and social warmth within a learning environment.
  • Prompts - A prompt is a cue, question, or instruction embedded in a learning task that directs learner attention, elicits a response, or scaffolds a cognitive process at
  • Provide Feedback - Gives learners corrective or reinforcing feedback to improve performance.
  • Provide guidance - Offers scaffolding, modeling, or examples to support learning.
  • Provocative Objects - A digital-environment design construct specifying five characteristics — consistent feedback, frequent failure tightly coupled to that feedback, non-standard re
  • Proximity - Placing related text and graphics close together on the page or screen so learners can process them as a single unit rather than searching and holding them in w
  • Public Display - Public display is the element in which learner work is made visible to a wider audience in the classroom or beyond.
  • Public Product - Public product is the element in which learners create work intended for real audiences beyond the teacher alone.
  • Public Speaking - Public speaking is the element in which learners present ideas aloud to an audience with attention to clarity, organization, evidence, and delivery.
  • Question Formulation - Learners generate their own questions to guide inquiry.
  • Quizzes - Short, low-stakes assessments that reinforce learning and provide feedback.
  • Real-World Math - Real-world math is the element in which mathematical reasoning is embedded in practical or authentic contexts.
  • Real-World Problems - Real-world problems are tasks framed around authentic issues, needs, or dilemmas outside purely academic abstraction.
  • Reassessment - Learners revisit and revise their responses after discussion or additional learning.
  • Rebuttals - Learners counter opposing viewpoints with evidence-based arguments.
  • Recall prior knowledge - Activates learners' existing mental models to connect new information.
  • Reciprocal Teaching - Learners take turns leading structured dialogue — predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarizing — to build comprehension of shared text or content.
  • Reflection - Learners analyze their experiences, actions, or decisions to deepen learning.
  • Reflection Activities - Reflection activities are structured tasks that ask learners to examine what they did, understood, or would change next.
  • Reinforcement - Reinforcement is the delivery of a consequence (reward, praise, feedback, or removal of an aversive condition) contingent on a learner's behavior, intended to i
  • Representational Drawing - Representational drawing is the element in which learners sketch, diagram, or draw structures and relationships to support understanding.
  • Research - Learners conduct investigations to explore topics, gather evidence, and develop conclusions.
  • Research Data Collection Methods - Observation, surveys, and archival/content analysis are the main methods researchers use to gather data, each with a distinct tradeoff between ecological validi
  • Resource Evaluation - Learners assess the credibility and relevance of sources.
  • Resource Hubs - Resource hubs are centralized collections of materials, links, tools, or references that learners can return to during a course or project.
  • Response redundancy index of relational congruence based on information theory - A quantitative index operationalizing relational congruence as patterning in verbal interaction, drawing on Shannon and Weaver's mathematical theory of communic
  • Retrieval - Retrieval practice asks learners to actively recall information from memory rather than re-read or re-hear it, strengthening the memory trace each time it is ac
  • Retrieval Practice - Retrieval practice is the element in which learners recall information from memory rather than only re-exposing themselves to it.
  • Review - Learners reflect on their own or peers' work before finalizing.
  • Review And Summarizing - Review and summarizing asks learners to re-engage with previously covered material by condensing it into their own words, consolidating memory and revealing gap
  • Revision - Learners improve their work based on feedback and self-reflection.
  • Rhetorical Strategies - Rhetorical strategies are deliberate moves learners use to persuade, frame, emphasize, appeal to an audience, or strengthen the force of an argument.
  • Role Reversal - Learners switch sides in a debate or discussion to argue from the opposite perspective.
  • Role-Playing - Role-playing is the element in which learners adopt roles and act through a scenario, interaction, or decision process from that perspective.
  • Rubric Design - Rubric design is the element in which criteria and performance levels are made explicit through a structured evaluative framework.
  • Rubrics - Rubrics are the element in which criteria and performance levels are made explicit to guide quality work and evaluation.
  • Scaffolded Inquiry - Gradually shifts learners from guided exploration to independent inquiry.
  • Scaffolding - Scaffolding is the element in which support is added temporarily so learners can perform tasks they could not yet complete independently.
  • Scaffolding: adjusting support to the child's level of development - The paper identifies scaffolding as a key teaching skill within the ZPD: "Scaffolding is an instructional process by which the teacher adjusts or modifies the a
  • Scenario-Based Learning - Scenario-based learning is the element in which instruction is organized around a realistic situation, case, or mission that requires learners to interpret info
  • Scientific Reasoning - Scientific reasoning is the element in which learners generate explanations, evaluate evidence, test claims, and revise models using disciplinary norms of inqui
  • Selected-Response Assessment Items - Multiple-choice, true-false, and matching items ask students to select rather than construct a response — easy to score objectively, but hard to write well, and
  • Self Efficacy - A learner's belief in their own capability to organize and execute the actions required to perform a task, which strongly influences motivation, effort, persist
  • Self-Assessment - Self-assessment is the element in which learners judge their own work, understanding, or progress against explicit criteria.
  • Self-Explanation - Self-explanation is the element in which learners explain to themselves why something is true, why a step works, or how a solution fits the problem.
  • Self-Monitoring - Self-monitoring is the element in which learners track their own attention, behavior, progress, or accuracy during learning.
  • Self-Paced Learning - Self-paced learning is the element in which learners control the rate or sequence of progress through material within a designed structure.
  • Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) - The Self-Regulation Questionnaire is a 63-item self-report instrument, built on the Miller and Brown seven-step model of self-regulation, that scores a person's
  • Self-talk as the mediating internal verbalization of teacher feedback - Self-talk is the internal verbalization by which students perceive, interpret, and integrate teacher statements and feedback, serving as the mediating step betw
  • Self-Testing - Self-testing is the element in which learners quiz themselves or otherwise attempt to retrieve knowledge without immediate external prompting.
  • Seminar Format - Seminar format is the element in which learning is organized around sustained discussion of a shared text, question, or issue with facilitator support but stron
  • Sentence Starters - Sentence starters (or sentence frames) provide partial sentence openings that structure learner responses, reducing the language-generation burden so learners c
  • Shared Documents - Shared documents are the element in which multiple learners contribute to a common editable artifact.
  • Significant Others Statements Inventory (SOSI) - The SOSI is an eight-subscale instrument measuring children's perceived frequency of positive and negative statements made by parents, teachers, siblings, and p
  • Simple-to-complex sequencing - Learning progresses from basic concepts to more detailed, complex ideas, so foundational knowledge is established before advanced material is introduced.
  • Simulation - A simulation is an interactive model of a system or environment in which learners act, observe consequences, and iterate, learning through controlled experiment
  • Small-Group Instruction - Small-group instruction is the element in which learners work with an instructor or facilitator in a reduced-size group for targeted teaching, discussion, or su
  • SMARTER Goals - SMARTER goals are a structured goal-setting element that asks learners to define goals that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound, evaluate
  • Social Learning - Social learning is the element in which interaction with peers, models, or communities is treated as a direct source of learning.
  • Socratic Questioning - Socratic questioning is the element in which prompts are used to probe assumptions, clarify reasoning, test evidence, and extend implications.
  • Socratic Seminar - Socratic seminar is the element in which learners build understanding through text-centered questioning and discussion.
  • Solution Development - Learners synthesize information to propose and test solutions.
  • Solution-step difficulty levels for simultaneous-equation problems - A five-level scheme for grading simultaneous-equation problems by the number of variables and solution steps, following Sweller's production/solution step metho
  • Spaced Learning - Spaced learning is the element in which practice or review is distributed over time rather than massed together.
  • Spaced Repetition - Spaced repetition is the element in which key material is revisited at strategically increasing intervals rather than massed into a single session.
  • Specific Learning Disabilities - A learning disability is a significant, specific gap between a student's ability and one narrow area of academic achievement (reading, writing, or math) that pe
  • Speech-to-text - Speech-to-text converts spoken language into written text, giving learners another route for composing, capturing ideas, and participating in text-based environ
  • Spiral Curriculum - Spiral curriculum is the element in which important ideas are revisited repeatedly over time, with each return expanding complexity or depth.
  • STaR Chart: a self-assessment tool for school technology and readiness - The School Technology and Readiness (STaR) Chart, first released by the CEO Forum in October 1997 and updated in this Year 2 report, is a self-assessment tool t
  • State objectives - Clearly communicates the learning goals to set expectations and focus attention.
  • Structured Academic Controversy - Structured academic controversy is the element in which learners argue multiple sides of an issue before synthesizing a shared conclusion.
  • Structured Debate - Structured debate is the element in which learners examine opposing claims using explicit roles, turn structures, evidence requirements, and response rules.
  • Structured Discussion - Structured discussion is the element in which talk is guided by prompts, roles, turns, protocols, or evidence requirements rather than left entirely open.
  • Structured pedagogy package: student books, teachers' guides, and teacher professional development - The brief describes structured pedagogy as "a coordinated approach to improving classroom instruction that involves provision of student materials and lesson pl
  • Structured Questioning - Instructors guide learners with sequenced, purposeful questions to scaffold deeper inquiry.
  • Student-Led IEPs - Student-led IEPs place the student with a disability in the driver's seat of their own Individualized Education Program meeting — preparing, presenting, and neg
  • Student-Written Texts - Learner-authored texts used as supplementary reading resources in literacy instruction.
  • Submission - Learners submit work for assessment, feedback, or peer review at structured checkpoints.
  • Summarization and Synthesis - Learners distill key concepts from a discussion, reading, or experience into their own condensed restatement or integrated account.
  • Summative Assessment - Summative assessment is the element in which a learner's performance is judged at the end of a unit, course, or other instructional sequence.
  • Supportive information - Supportive information provides the cognitive strategies, mental models, and conceptual frameworks necessary for tackling complex tasks.
  • Task Management - Task management is the element in which learners organize, track, assign, or sequence work across a project or collaborative activity.
  • Teacher Language and Gesture Coding Scheme for Mathematical Equivalence - A coding scheme with four language codes (ISA, "is the same as"; DEF, definition; BAL, balance; FORM, equation form) and two gesture codes (GBAL, balance gestur
  • Team-Based Inquiry - Students work in structured groups to analyze problems, construct solutions, and reflect together.
  • Technology Integration - Technology integration is the element in which digital tools are used in direct service of learning goals, feedback, access, or collaboration.
  • Text underlining and annotating - A study aid involving marking text to indicate importance.
  • Think-Aloud - Think-aloud is the element in which an instructor, peer, or learner verbalizes reasoning while performing a task.
  • Three-Lesson Web-Based SRL Training - A web-based training on self-regulated learning that "can be attended by virtually unlimited numbers of participants" choosing their own time and place.
  • Transfer Tasks - A transfer task requires learners to apply learned knowledge or skills to a novel problem or context different from the one in which they were taught.
  • Video Prompts - Video prompts are short video clips used to launch attention, curiosity, discussion, or analysis.
  • Video-Based Reflection - Video-based reflection is the element in which learners or practitioners review recorded performance to analyze choices, patterns, and next steps.
  • Virtual Whiteboards - Virtual whiteboards are the element in which learners sketch, annotate, and collaborate in a shared digital visual workspace.
  • Visual Imagery - Visual imagery asks learners to form or use mental pictures — or supports them with concrete images — so that verbal content is encoded in both visual and verba
  • Vocabulary assistance embedded directly in the text - Vocabulary help, such as pronunciation and glossing of difficult terms, embedded directly in the text as one of the enumerated aid types.
  • Website Motivational Analysis Checklist (WebMAC) - WebMAC is described as "an instrument used for designing and assessing the motivational quality of World Wide Web sites".
  • Whole-Class Sharing - Learners present their ideas, responses, or conclusions to the entire class, often following small-group or pair work.
  • Whole-task performance - Whole-task performance engages learners in authentic, complex tasks that integrate multiple skills and knowledge areas simultaneously, mirroring the conditions
  • Worked Examples - Worked examples are the element in which learners study complete or partial solutions before attempting similar problems independently.
  • Writing Prompts - A writing prompt is a task specification that directs learners to produce written text — explaining, arguing, reflecting, or synthesizing — in order to consolid

The full machine-readable listing is this folder's index.md on GitHub.