Designing for classroom

Setting · school or university class with a teacher · All situations

132 rows from 127 pages say what to change when the brief's setting is classroom; 50 of them cite a claim. Pages whose rows cite claims come first. Read the basis before relying on a row: many carry a claim to learners or settings it did not test, and say so.

Authentic Assessment

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Large class (more than about 60) or little assessor time (from the wording)	Use peer assessment with the rubric for the draft; teacher feedback on a sample plus whole-class feedback on common problems; double-score only a sample of finals and products near the threshold.	Peer assessment [+M]; structured criteria not shown to beat freeform peer review [~M], so do not expect the rubric alone to lift the peer effect

Balanced pronunciation curriculum covering suprasegmentals, segmentals, and fluency, with a short list of central features selected by diagnosis

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large class, or scarce facilitator time (a volunteer tutor, a brief check-in) (from the wording)	Diagnose from a short read-aloud plus one spontaneous answer per learner, ideally screened by ASR transcripts; run segmental practice as ASR self-study; spend the teacher's minutes only on suprasegmental and fluency feedback and on the re-observation samples.	Resource scarcity and large classes [~M] (a review of Bangladeshi classrooms) names the constraint; ASR diagnosis [+M]; guided ASR practice [+S], carried from Korean and other ESL/EFL learners

Cognitive Activation

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with a teacher designing their own tasks	Before teaching, check each planned task against step 4 (does the output go beyond the material?), with a colleague if possible; expect tasks planned as interactive to come out merely active. For teachers new to this, plan one rewritten task per lesson rather than a whole activating unit.	Teachers had minimal success designing Constructive and Interactive activities [~M] and Students learned more in Constructive than Active activities [+M]; Most prospective teachers see constructivist conceptions as highly valuable but not very applicable [~W] (304 Turkish prospective teachers: 76% valued constructivist teaching highly but rated it hard to apply; beliefs, not task design; the one-task-per-lesson step is untested)

Coherence Principle

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, a live lecture (from the wording)	Keep the explanation itself free of digressions; tell the anecdote after the point it illustrates, and only if it is an instance of it	Design principle effects moderated by pacing and complexity [~M]; placement untested

Collaborative Evaluation

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
A large class, or no teacher reaches each group (from the wording)	Replace group consensus with the mean of four or five independent ratings per object, and give the reference to the whole class afterwards; discuss only the objects where the mean departs most from it.	Peer judgment accuracy [~M]: with a well-specified rubric, averaged ratings by AP English students correlated with expert scores about as well as teachers' did. Correlational, one subject

Concreteness Fading

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners (from the wording)	Do the concrete stage as a demonstration with a few learners acting it out, the iconic stage individually on paper; in discussion, take a learner's symbolic answer back down to the drawing or the object before moving on	Unfolding knowledge elements produces deeper conceptual learning opportunities [+W] (opportunities in the discourse, not measured learning)

Contiguity Principle (Spatial and Temporal)

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class, or group testing (from the wording)	Integrate the shared materials once; the benefit holds in group-tested settings	Effects larger one-to-one but still large under group testing [~M] (d = .89 vs .65)

Culturally Responsive Classroom Norms

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher, a large class (from the wording)	Use all-student response (cards, whiteboards, polls) for most questions and a simple tally of who answers publicly; correct conduct with low-profile moves first	Wait time in classrooms: Questioning Strategies Improve Learning [+M]. Tally and response modes: untested

Distributed Cognition

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many groups, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a short check-in) (from the wording)	Read each group's shared representation and role line instead of listening in; spend the check-in only on groups whose progress line has not moved or whose unaided check failed; when a group's work is visible on a shared board, use the freed time to raise the challenge rather than supply information	Mostly untested; in one qualitative comparison of nursing problem-based-learning groups, the interactive-whiteboard group needed less late-stage teacher scaffolding than the traditional-whiteboard group (The IW-supported group needed less teacher scaffolding in the late problem-solving stage, where nurse and instructor discourse decreased, while scaffolding increased from early to late stage in the TW condition [+W]); contingent support is better supported one-to-one than at class scale (Contingent scaffolding improves learning more than fixed or absent support. [~M])

Effective Classroom Management Plan Criteria

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
The whole class is disruptive (from the wording)	Start with steps 1 and 2: re-teach every routine for two weeks, with daily rehearsal, before adding any new consequence; tally disruptions before and after	Universal classroom management [+M] and less disruption in all 12 studies [+M] (K–12 classrooms, against usual practice); clear behavior expectations [+M] (K–5)
One teacher with a large group (a lecture, a large class, no assistant) (from the wording)	Rely on prevention and routines more than on individual redirection: a visible attention signal, short timed tasks with a clear start and end, a routine for asking for help without the teacher, and peer roles for materials; respond to the group, then to individuals after class	untested proposal

Feedback Loops

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, one teacher and a large group	Collect every learner's attempt at once (mini-whiteboards, a poll, a short written item), give whole-class information on the commonest error, have everyone do one matched item, then go to those who still fail; use peers with a rubric for drafts; budget class time for the loop	Trained teachers' loop time [+M] (secondary mathematics, time allocation only, no learning outcome); rubrics and peer feedback [~M] (rubrics changed peer comments, one study found less reflective feedback)

Flipped Learning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group (100+) (from the wording)	Use the opening check as a poll, pairs or small groups for application, and whole-class feedback on the commonest error, then go to groups still stuck; trained peer teachers or assistants can extend the circulation	Active learning improves exam performance [+S] (held across class sizes, largest in small classes); Peer-teaching flipped classroom students show higher calculus conceptual understanding… [+M] (two intact classes; the procedure is not described on the claim page)

Formative Assessment

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
A large class with one teacher, and written work (from the wording)	Add peer review so that each learner gets more feedback than the teacher alone can give; a fixed script is optional	Peer assessment improves performance [+M]; Structured criteria are not shown to improve peer assessment [~M]

Fostering Communities of Learning (FCL)

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many groups (30+ learners) (from the wording)	Use role cards and question stems so groups can run without the teacher; the teacher circulates on a fixed rota and checks each research group once before jigsaw; use written exit checks to decide which group to visit.	Contingent scaffolding [~M]: evidence mostly from one-to-one tutoring; its claim page notes contingency across a whole class is hard. The rota is untested

Functional Behavior Assessment

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
The whole class is disruptive, not one learner (from the wording)	Do not start individual assessments; put universal management in place first (taught routines, clear expectations, frequent positive contact), then reassess which learners still stand out	Universal classroom management [~M] (12-study meta-analysis, K–12 classrooms; universal practices without functional information)
One teacher with a full class, no support staff (from the wording)	Use a tally sheet with three columns (time, activity just before, what followed) during the two lessons where the behavior is worst, for one week; test one trigger change in the second week	untested proposal

Game-Based Mastery Learning

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, one teacher and many learners	Learners work the levels on devices; the class keeps a common pace with a weekly level target; the teacher spends the session's last 10 minutes with learners who failed a check twice	Mastery effects vary with pacing [~M] (group-based programmes had larger effects, no game layer); group-based mastery and attrition [+M] (one synthesis)

Gamification

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group	Use team scores from individual quizzes (step 5), updated once a week on a class board; the teacher reviews the board, not every point	Group rewards on individual learning [+M] (school studies, four weeks or more, not gamified)

Graphic Organizers

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with a large group	Have pairs build the organizer together; collect a few, project two that differ, and discuss which fits the content better and why	Teacher-student interactive semantic mapping produced higher EFL reading comprehension posttest scores than teacher-initiated and student-mediated semantic mapping [+M] (EFL university students); Collaborative concept mapping enhances learning more than individual concept mapping [+W] (second-hand)

Include parents, teachers, or mentors in any self-regulation intervention and support their own skills and coaching capacity

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Setting is a school classroom and the problem is conduct, exclusions or suspensions	Add a short exercise on the teachers' stance towards discipline (relationships first, the student's perspective) before or alongside the student programme; track exclusions by group of students	Empathic discipline [+M] (middle-school mathematics teachers; overall effect small and marginal in the preregistered replication, larger for students at high risk)

Learning-for-Use (LfU) Model

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a short check-in per group) (from the wording)	Spend facilitator time on the syntheses, not the investigation; give groups written prompts and a checklist for the investigation; at each check-in ask one question ("what does your result tell you about the driving question?").	Contingent scaffolding [~M]: its evidence is mostly one-to-one tutoring, and the claim page reports contingency is hard across a whole class

Least Restrictive Environment

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher, many learners, no aide	Set up structured peer tutoring pairs and assigned group roles for the class; build presentation and response options into materials for everyone; the specialist co-plans for 15 minutes a week (proposal) instead of sitting in	Peer Tutoring Improves Achievement [+M] (general school populations; carried to inclusion)

Modality Principle

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many, or online-self-paced with no teacher (from the wording)	Narrated short segments with pause and replay; a short "what happens if" question after each	Letting learners pace helped on complex material, while learner control in general showed almost no effect [~M]; the check question is an untested proposal

Multiple Methods of Assessment

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large group, or scarce marker time (volunteers, a busy shift, a tutor who checks in briefly) (from the wording)	Keep one quick common method for everyone; use the second method only for learners near a decision or out of line with their other work; use trained peer review for the second reading of products; a 2-minute oral check per learner at most	Peer assessment improves academic performance by a small average amount relative to no assessment or to teacher assessment [+M] (meta-analysis of 54 studies; about performance, not the accuracy of peer judgements); the targeting rule is untested

Note-taking

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large lecture group (from the wording)	Guided-notes outline for everyone; two or three pauses per hour with a restatement written to a neighbour or a poll; collect a random sample of notes after the first week to check for errors and address the commonest one in the next lecture	Guided Notes Improve Note Accuracy [+M] (one quasi-experiment with two intact undergraduate classes); pauses and sampling untested

Online Course Design (Community of Inquiry)

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
online-self-paced with rolling enrolment, or one teacher for hundreds of learners (from the wording)	Replace teacher feedback on each piece with automatic feedback on self-checks, a weekly teacher summary of common errors, and peer review against a rubric; keep the week-1 if-then plan; give the teacher's time to learners flagged by a missed week.	Implementation intentions [+S] (the two field experiments were in large online courses); the rest is untested

PAIR-C Framework (Pattern, Agents, Interactions, Relations, Causality)

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for 25–35 learners (from the wording)	Prepare a card per expected misconception with the dimension it violates and the correcting sentence; circulate during step 4 and answer from the cards; collect written explanations to read between sessions.	Contingent scaffolding [~M]: evidence mostly from one-to-one tutoring, and the claim page notes that contingency across 30 students is hard

Peer Learning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift, one tutor checking in briefly)	Put the structure in the role cards and the check items, not in the facilitator: the facilitator samples two or three pairs per round, corrects the commonest error for everyone, and reads only the individual checks	Structured Peer Tutoring Outperforms Unstructured [+M]; sampling is an untested proposal, and contingent help is shown one-to-one only (contingent scaffolding [~M]); in an IES study of mathematics curricula, teachers directing students to help one another, and asking the class whether it agreed with a student's answer, went with higher achievement [+W] (correlational, no effect size)

Peer Teaching

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher for 25–30 learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift, one tutor dropping in)	Put the structure in the role cards and answer keys, not the adult: the adult samples two or three pairs a round, corrects the commonest error for everyone, and reads only the individual checks.	Structured Peer Tutoring Outperforms Unstructured [+M]; the sampling rule is an untested proposal

Phonics

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a whole class of 25–30 (from the wording)	Introduce the new correspondence to the whole class in 10 minutes with choral responses and every child showing a written answer at once (whiteboards); then small groups by placement for decodable reading while others practise independently; weekly one-to-one checks rotated across the class; give the lowest-placed group at least as many minutes of connected reading as the others, and regroup as checks are passed	Phonemic Awareness Training Improves Reading [~M] (for phonemic-awareness training, small groups beat whole-class and individual delivery; carried to phonics); Low reading-group first graders read far fewer words than high-group peers, limiting elaboration [~W] (an observational finding reported second-hand: low-group first graders read 60 words in five days, high groups about ten times as many); the rotation and the equal-time rule are untested

Physical Activity

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Learners are child or primary age, in a classroom	Use the default as given: one or two bouts per session, 5 minutes vigorous or more than 10 minutes moderate-to-vigorous, between segments, with a fixed transition	Classroom physical activity… [+S] (primary-school and 4–17-year-old children; on-task behavior); Energizers improved on-task behavior… [+M] (10-minute breaks, grades 3–4)
One teacher with a large group, or scarce facilitator time (a volunteer, a busy shift, one tutor checking in briefly) (from the wording)	Use one fixed, scripted routine the group learns once and then leads itself (a student leader, a 5-minute video or audio track), so running it costs the facilitator only the start and the closing cue	untested proposal

Positive Behavioral Interventions And Supports

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher, no school-wide system (from the wording)	Run the universal tier in one room: three to five posted expectations, taught in the first week, a greeting at the door, specific praise, a short consistent correction; keep a simple tally of incidents.	Universal classroom management [+M]; positive greetings at the door [+M] (middle school)

Pretesting (Prequestions Before Study)

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Lecture with slides, one teacher for many learners (from the wording)	Multiple-choice pretest at the start of the lecture on paper or clickers; no individual feedback needed when the lecture answers each item	Classroom pretesting improves high-stakes exam performance [+M] (ten-week course, pen-and-paper pretests, no feedback)

Process-based Writing

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class or many sections (from the wording)	Peers give the first response with criteria; the teacher reads a sample of peer comments and responds to each writer on two or three priorities only; rotate 5-minute conferences so each writer gets one per composition; do not grade drafts	Peer Feedback Improves Writing [+M] (peer vs teacher feedback not reliably different); Students report teacher feedback on writing is insufficient [~W] (interviews; teachers' load)

Programmed Instruction

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, one teacher for many learners	The software or the printed program confirms each response; the teacher sees who is branched to remedial frames twice and goes to them; the class keeps a shared unit date and takes the unit check together.	Group-based programs had larger effects than self-paced ones [~M]; the teacher's routine is untested

Provide positive comments alongside constructive criticism when responding to student writing

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large class, or scarce responder time (a busy term, volunteer tutors, one short check-in) (from the wording)	Per draft: one specific strength, one priority change, one question, written in under 3 minutes; or a whole-class note on common strengths and one common problem, with individual comments only on the priority. Return comments before the grade	Students report teacher feedback on writing is insufficient, and they value scores over feedback [~M] (one interview study of Chinese college English students, who reported teachers lacked time and that they cared more about scores); the minutes are an untested proposal

Rhetorical Skill Development

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group (from the wording)	Peer response in pairs against the written criteria (one group of three in rotation only if the number is odd); the teacher reads a sample of drafts and gives whole-class feedback on the commonest gap (usually the missing answer to an objection)	Peer Feedback Improves Writing [+M] (higher education; carried to school classes untested)

Scaffolding

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, whole-class inquiry with learners who differ in prior knowledge and reasoning	Combine a static structuring scaffold on the task with teacher modelling and adaptive verbal prompts that problematise, and give both procedural and conceptual help where learners stall (for example on graphs); in one trial with third graders this raised posttest reasoning over the same inquiry unit without the scaffolds and almost removed the disadvantage of lower prior knowledge and reasoning. Expect the scaffolded version to lean on different capacities: inhibition predicted learning only under scaffolding, so check who is still left behind	Scaffolded third-graders outperformed control students on irrelevant-evidence reasoning [+M]; Scaffolding almost fully diminished the disadvantage of lower logical reasoning [+W]; Inhibition predicted posttest scores only under scaffolding [~W]; The teacher as adaptive expert in real-time labs [+W]

Segmenting Principle

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners (from the wording)	Teacher pauses the shared video at the same breaks for everyone; use the break for a whole-class prompt rather than individual pacing	Effects confirmed for system-paced segmentation [+M]; the prompt is an untested proposal

Self Affirmation

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Learners are adolescent, in a classroom with one teacher (middle or secondary school)	Teacher hands out the sheet at the start of a lesson early in term; 15 minutes of silent writing; collect nothing, or collect sealed and unread	self-affirmation claim [~S] (seventh-graders, in class; one positive and one null replication)
One teacher for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (a volunteer, one tutor checking in briefly) (from the wording)	Use a printed or online sheet that runs itself; the facilitator only reads out the instructions and keeps time; there is nothing to mark	untested proposal

Simulations & Immersive Virtual Environments

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Learners are child or school-age in a classroom	Use a teacher-led screen simulation with a goal sheet for each run, pairs at a device, and a whole-class debrief that names the real-world phenomenon; keep runs short (10–15 minutes); where physical materials are scarce, a simulation taught with the same instruction can stand in for them	the format is an untested proposal; the substitution rests on one study of one science skill with fourth- and fifth-graders (Physical and virtual instructional materials are equally effective for teaching fourth- and fifth-graders to design unconfounded experiments when instructional method is controlled [~M], no difference found, equivalence not tested); the guided-VR experiment is the nearest evidence on guidance, and teachers report AI and virtual labs let students "try all materials virtually first, then use real ones" (Teachers report AI tools enable authentic, contextualized science experiences [+W], teacher interviews only)

Social Presence

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Face-to-face classroom	Presence cues are already there; spend effort on names, on the teacher's warmth and expectations, and on routines that let quiet pupils be heard (pairs before plenary), not on profiles	Positive teacher–student relationships are associated with greater student engagement and, more weakly, with achievement [+M] (correlational meta-analyses, preschool to high school, plus a learner-centred synthesis; not a test of any routine)

Structured Peer Review

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large class, or no teacher reaches each pair (from the wording)	Two to three reviewers per draft at random, mixing reviewers' attainment; the teacher reads comments only where an author flags a disagreement, spot-checks a small sample of drafts against the peer scores, and gives one class-wide note on the commonest problem; use averaged ratings rather than single reviews.	Peer feedback on writing [+M]: number of peers did not moderate the effect; several peer reviews beat one expert's [+W] on draft-to-final improvement in one 28-student experiment; peer accuracy [~M]: averaged ratings, one subject, correlational; MOOC grader bias [~W] varied with the gap between grader's and author's attainment, observational

Summative Assessment

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher marks for a large group, or marking time is scarce (volunteers, a busy shift, one tutor) (from the wording)	Machine-score the knowledge items; judge a smaller set of performance tasks with a short rubric; double-mark a sample of about one in ten, not all; return results by outcome with one comment each. A computerised adaptive test can shorten a mastery test while reaching nearly the same decision	An adaptive mastery testing strategy reduces test length by 30% to 81% while reaching the same mastery decision as the conventional test for 96% of trainees [+W] (a military-training simulation); the marking plan is untested

Support Early Language Development

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher for 15–20 children	Rotate small groups of 4–5 for 10-minute dialogic sessions while others play; train assistants or volunteers to run some groups; check once a week that sessions happen and children talk on most pages	the teacher-delivered replication failure in the hub [~S]; frequency of implementation moderates effects [~M]; group sizes are untested proposals

Supporting Students with Intellectual Disabilities

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher, a full general class, the student needs intermittent support (from the wording)	Build the student's steps into the class task (same activity, smaller step, picture checklist), seat a trained peer partner, and check the student's attempt first when circulating	Peer tutoring improves achievement [+M] (tutee ability level not a moderator, mathematics); the rest untested

Teach the conceptual underpinnings of L2 forms rather than only their structural aspects or formulaic units

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class (from the wording)	Take the diagnostic sample as one shared short writing task, tally the commonest deviation for the class, and teach that first; use mini-whiteboards or a poll for the choice items	conceptual deviations guide where to focus [+W]; the class-scale tally is untested

Technology should augment, not supplant, learning processes in student-centered environments

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and many learners, teacher-facing AI alerts or dashboards	Limit alerts to a few the teacher acts on; the teacher keeps their own observation round; the teacher decides re-teaching from the data	Real-time AI alerts can expand teachers' situational awareness but in some cases overload teachers' attention or draw focus away from their own observation flow [~W] (K-12 review, reported second-hand); Teachers who positioned AI as a partner remained instructional leaders, weaving the tool into rich instruction and using score data to decide what to re-teach [+M] (qualitative)

Think-Pair-Share

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Some learners find speaking to the whole class hard (from the wording)	Let the share be written or reported by the pair, not a forced individual public answer	ND students avoid courses requiring public presentations [~W]

Treat talking and writing as means to learning through dialogue-based, student-centered instruction

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher, a large class (30 or more) (from the wording)	Every learner talks to a partner before anyone speaks to the class; call on pairs in a known order; collect one written sentence from everyone at the end, and read a sample, not all	WTC decreases as class size increases on both talk-time and turns of talk [~W] (three EFL classes, associational); the moves are untested proposals

Workshop Model

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with 30 or more learners (from the wording)	Keep conferences to about 3 minutes, use small-group conferences for shared needs, keep a conference record so each learner is seen once a week, and teach a peer-conference protocol so partners give each other a first response.	Contingent support [~M]: evidence mostly one-to-one tutoring (20 distinct studies in its table), and the review reports contingency across 30 students is hard

Ask Experts

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one expert and a large group (office hours, drop-in)	Collect question cards in advance, triage them, spend open time on the commonest stalls with a think-aloud, and book short individual slots for learners who have not come; do not count attendance as evidence of benefit	untested proposal; drop-in tutoring visits were usually unrelated to course grades in one observational study (Tutoring center visits usually showed no significant difference in individual course performance, and sometimes tutored students performed worse [~M], college tutoring centre, self-selected visitors)

Character Education

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Only one teacher, one classroom, the school is punitive or competitive (from the wording)	Run weekly class meetings and situational moral problems inside the class; keep the conflict-resolution response for your own room; tell families what you are doing; expect less reach	untested proposal, from the earlier page's constraint on single teachers

Classroom Space and Procedural Design

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
A lecture hall or room with fixed seating, one teacher with a large group (from the wording)	Rely on procedures and a visible signal rather than walking to learners: one attention signal, short timed tasks with a clear start and end, a help routine that does not need the teacher (a neighbour, a shared question board); use the aisles and the front rows for checking	untested proposal; the universal-management meta-analysis is K–12 classrooms, not lecture halls

Cognitive Styles

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, one tutor checking in briefly) (from the wording)	Do not diagnose individuals. Build the structure and the check into the task for everyone; spend the brief check-in only on learners who stalled on the last task, looking at one section of their work	untested proposal

Combine intentional and incidental vocabulary learning rather than relying on incidental learning alone

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group, or scarce facilitator time (a volunteer, a short weekly check-in) (from the wording)	Pre-teach to everyone at once; let input and spaced review run on readers, audio or an app; in the check-in look at one thing: two or three uses of kept words from the week's reading	untested proposal; the review part rests on Supplemental computer-based spaced repetition… [+M]

Compensate for age-related sensory impairments by combining audio input with visual presentation

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group or a large hall (from the wording)	Use a microphone or sound-field system if available; write in large print on a board everyone can see; repeat every question aloud before answering; give each learner the printed copy rather than relying on the board	untested proposal

Considering The Opposite

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (a volunteer, a busy shift) (from the wording)	A printed or on-screen prompt card does the prompting; partners swap and write the case against each other's judgment; the facilitator reads three to five at random and gives whole-group feedback on the commonest weak alternative	untested proposal

Criterion- and Norm-Referenced Testing

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, or facilitator time is scarce (volunteers, a short weekly session) (from the wording)	Learners self-score short checks against an answer key with worked reasons; the teacher spends contact time only on near-cut learners and the skill most learners have not mastered	untested proposal

Deliberate Practice

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group	Work on the component most of the class misses; pairs score each other's attempts on that one rubric line; the teacher scans every whole-task attempt at the end and gives whole-class feedback on the commonest error	untested proposal

Design tools so productive usage is guaranteed by affordances and constraints rather than instructions

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and many learners	Let the tool hold the constraint so the teacher is free to circulate; the teacher watches for learners stuck at the same point and gives one spoken pointer to all, then notes it as a screen to redesign	untested proposal

Develop Understanding

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group	Collect step 1 predictions and step 4 checks from every learner at once (cards, mini-whiteboards, a poll); address the commonest wrong idea with the whole class, then go to those still wrong.	Untested proposal; contingent support [~M] is shown one-to-one, and its classroom-scale effect is not

Digital Learning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, one teacher and a large group, devices available	Use the software for individual practice and hints while the teacher watches the class's results live and goes to those who are stuck; use class time for what the software cannot do (discussion of reasons, whole tasks)	untested proposal; contingent-support evidence is one-to-one (Contingent scaffolding improves learning more than fixed or absent support. [~M])

Disciplinary Literacy

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class (from the wording)	Model to the whole class; run text sets in pairs with one question card each; collect one written quotation-backed answer per pair per lesson and respond to the commonest gap the next day	untested proposal

Dual Coding

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Large class, one teacher (from the wording)	Collect a sample of learner drawings each session, show one correct and one common error to the class, then have everyone compare their own with the model	untested proposal

Educational Readiness

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large intake, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a short check-in) (from the wording)	Use a group-administered check of five items with one observed task per learner over the first week; one bridging group, not one per learner; recheck at six weeks only	Untested proposal

Educators should act as mediators and facilitators of learning rather than content disseminators

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class (from the wording)	Have every learner show an answer at once (cards, mini-whiteboards, a poll), mediate the commonest misunderstanding for the whole class, then go to those still stuck; peers check each other against stated criteria	untested; contingent-help evidence is one-to-one (Contingent scaffolding improves learning more than fixed or absent support. [~S], cited for its limit)

Elaborative Reasoning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group (from the wording)	Everyone writes an answer; the teacher reads a sample of five, models one strong answer to the class, and gives the missing reason for the commonest failure	untested proposal; answer quality was poor in Answers to elaborative interrogation questions were mostly poor in quality, and answer quality correlated positively with posttest scores [~M]

Emergent Curriculum

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, no assistant (from the wording)	Observe a different small group each day (four or five learners), so each learner is noted at least weekly; run one thread for the whole class with two or three branches rather than many threads; web with the class, not alone after hours.	Untested; the earlier page notes that webbing works best with more than one adult present

Employ flexible error treatment strategies matched to objectives, competence, affect, and correction effectiveness

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class (from the wording)	During the activity, walk and note errors on a sheet; afterwards, five minutes on the two or three commonest, written up without names, learners correct them in pairs, then the rule	untested proposal; teachers' own preference for end-of-class correction (teachers favour delayed correction [~M]) is a belief, not an outcome

Engagement

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group	Make participation visible all at once (everyone writes or shows a response); use spot checks of on-task behaviour across the room; greet at the door even if briefly	untested at scale; the greeting claim is from middle-school classrooms (greetings [+M])

Epistemic Games

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher or practitioner for many learners (30 or more) (from the wording)	Run in teams of four with differentiated roles (departments); the teacher plays one mentor character for the whole class at set points, and teams check decisions against a written checklist from the epistemography between visits.	Untested proposal; the earlier page's role differentiation

Expanding Social Networks

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher or coordinator for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift, one tutor checking in briefly) (from the wording)	Use veteran learners as mentors and brokers; spend staff time on two things only: the first outreach to learners who have not joined, and asking at each check-in "whom did you contact, and what is your next step?"	untested proposal

Experience with Languaging Activities (ELAs) guided by a sequence of experience-based questions

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift, a tutor checking in briefly) (from the wording)	Have learners write steps 4 and 5; the facilitator reads a sample of five step 4 answers and responds to the whole group, asking one learner why a correct answer is correct; pairs check each other's answer against a model answer.	Untested; the "why did you choose this correct answer" move is the source's (strategy page)

Explicit Instruction: Computer Basics

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Setting is a classroom or lab: one teacher, many learners (from the wording)	Teach one routine to all, then have every learner do it at once; at a set point everyone turns their screen or holds up the phone so the teacher can scan; pair a learner who has finished with one who is stuck, with the rule that the stuck learner keeps hands on the device; collect one unaided run-through from each learner before the next routine	untested proposal; the evidence for responsive help is one-to-one (Contingent scaffolding improves learning more than fixed or absent support. [~M], whose classroom-scale effect is not shown)

Explicit Instruction: Internet Search

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher, a large class (from the wording)	Have every learner post their first query for the same question at once (a shared document or poll); discuss the commonest problem with the whole class; read only the logs of learners who found nothing usable	Untested; contingent-support evidence is one-to-one (Contingent scaffolding improves learning more than fixed or absent support. [~M])

Explicit Instruction: Math Strategies

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large class (from the wording)	Put two learner methods side by side on the board; everyone shows a method choice at once (cards, mini-whiteboards); discuss the commonest wrong choice; then go to those who chose by keyword	untested proposal

Explicit Instruction: Online Reading Strategies

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group	Projected think-aloud; everyone keeps the page record on paper or in one shared document the teacher can scan; two checkpoints per task where the teacher reads records and gives whole-class feedback on the commonest drift, then visits those who lost the question	untested proposal; whole-class strategy programmes showed much smaller effects than researcher-led ones (Reading Strategy Instruction Improves Comprehension [~S]) and contingent-support evidence is mostly one-to-one (Contingent scaffolding … [~M])
One teacher or tutor with little time (volunteers, a busy shift, brief check-ins) (from the wording)	Give learners a prompt card with the four moves and a model synthesis to check their own against; the tutor's one check-in reads the record and asks one question ("where did you leave your question?")	untested proposal; the prompt card stands in for live prompts (Metacognitive prompts improve learning [+S], computer-based prompts; carried)

Explicit Instruction: Vocabulary

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group, or scarce facilitator time (a volunteer, one short check-in a week) (from the wording)	Teach the set to everyone at once in 10 minutes; let spaced review run on cards or an app; in the check-in, look at one thing only: a written or spoken use of two or three of the week's words	untested proposal; the review part rests on Supplemental computer-based spaced repetition… [+M]

Flexible Grouping

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher, many learners (30 or more), or a class of about 50 (from the wording)	One similar-need group with the teacher per segment while the rest work in mixed groups with roles and self-checkable tasks; rotate which group meets the teacher across the week; whole-class reteach when more than half share a gap	untested proposal; contingent support is shown one-to-one only (Contingent scaffolding improves learning more than fixed or absent support. [~M])

Fostering Creative Thinking

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group (from the wording)	Individual silent generation on cards or a poll, then pairs merge lists, then the class sees a sample; the teacher's role in generation is only to keep judgement out and to ask the assumption question to stalled groups	untested proposal

Goal Setting & Monitoring

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
Large class, one teacher (from the wording)	Use one shared goal template and peer or self check-ins against the criterion; teacher reviews goals only for learners whose progress stalls	untested proposal

Guide change efforts with systemic understanding, focusing interventions on one framework component at a time as needed

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
The change is a single tool or course for one teacher or one class, touching nothing else (from the wording)	Keep the map to one page: the assessment, the time and the one or two people around the user. Do not run the full process	untested proposal

Guided Practice

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group	Have every learner show each attempt at once (mini-whiteboards, cards, a quick poll) so the teacher can scan them all; give whole-class feedback on the commonest error, then go to those who still fail. With older learners, pairs can also check each other against a worked answer; with young children, or when one misconception is widespread, the teacher's scan is safer than peer checking. Collect one unaided item from everyone before independent work	untested proposal; contingent-support evidence is one-to-one and its classroom-scale effect is not shown (Contingent scaffolding improves learning more than fixed or absent support. [~M])

Handouts/Online Guides/Visual Reading Aids

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift) (from the wording)	Give a reference version of the completed aid to compare against after learners finish their own, and spend the teacher's time only on the one or two points most learners missed	untested proposal

Harmonize opposites: strike a balance between competing educational ideas rather than embracing one method wholesale

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, one tutor checking in briefly) (from the wording)	Give live time to the method whose outcomes fell when facilitation lapsed; run the other through self-checking items or courseware; keep the weekly component check to 5 minutes	untested proposal; from the earlier page (the simulation's knowledge outcomes suffered when educators disengaged) and Gateway math students benefit from a balance of social, active learning and independent practice, but faculty constraints limit active learning [~M] (faculty and student views, US college maths)

Holistic Learning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group (from the wording)	Have every learner show their placement at once (cards, mini-whiteboards, a poll), address the commonest misplacement to the whole group, then go to those still misplacing	untested proposal

Interleaving

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners (from the wording)	Give everyone the same mixed set and the same "name the kind first" step; look at which pairs of kinds are confused across the class and re-teach those pairs	untested proposal

Journaling

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift, a mentor who checks in briefly) (from the wording)	Do not promise individual replies. Read a rotating sample (for example five entries a week), give one whole-group reply on the commonest confusion, and use peer reading in pairs with one question each; keep the learner's own reread of their last next step every time.	untested proposal; the reason for keeping some use of entries is diary alone [-M]

Keep the learner in control of the information flow with on-demand tools and supports

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and many learners, one device each	Learners work in headphones on their own device for step 2; the teacher circulates to those who have opened no help, then runs a five-minute whole-class check on the scene's two or three hardest lines	untested proposal

Knowledge Organization

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, one teacher and a large group	One shared organization on the board; pairs sort printed cards into it; the teacher checks only top-level placement across the room, then everyone rebuilds individually from memory	untested at class scale; pairs building maps together is reported to beat individuals (An ICAP theory article reports, second-hand and without describing the design, a study in which concept mapping with a peer enhanced learning more than concept mapping alone [+W], one study reported second-hand)

Learning by Producing (multimedia production as learning)

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many teams, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift, a tutor checking in briefly) (from the wording)	Spend the facilitator's minutes on two checks only: the blueprint's content (5 minutes per team) and the individual explanation before presentation. Teams peer-review blueprints against the criteria list first; use templates so tool questions do not reach the facilitator.	Untested proposal; the blueprint check is the step most directly tied to the content-quality concern [~M]

Memory Consolidation

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher or tutor for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift) (from the wording)	Use self-marked recall (learners check against an answer card) and look only at the items many missed; spend facilitator time on re-explaining those, not on marking	untested proposal

Minimize student frustration by making feedback clear, legible, focused, and transparent

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with many learners, or scarce facilitator time (a volunteer tutor, a short check-in) (from the wording)	Two priority comments per draft, chosen from a short list of the commonest problems; one whole-class note on the commonest problem with a worked before-and-after; skip line edits	untested proposal

Mnemonic Device

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group, or scarce facilitator time (a volunteer, a brief check-in) (from the wording)	Teach the cue to everyone at once in 5 minutes; let recall run on cards or an app between sessions; in the check-in, ask each learner for the items without the cue and look only at that	untested proposal

Modeling

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group (from the wording)	Give one live model to all; at each pause have every learner show a prediction at once (cards, mini-whiteboards, a poll); then in pairs, one learner narrates the next item while the other checks against the modelled decision list; re-model only for the error most pairs show	untested proposal; the explanation step is carried from Prompting learners to self-explain… [+S], and the large field study under Constructive learning beats active and passive learning [~M] found only the most interactive activities ahead of passive ones in real classes

Motivation

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with many learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift, a tutor checking in briefly) (from the wording)	Spend the scarce minutes on one question about the likely low component, and on the learners whose behaviour dropped; let relevance sentences and progress records be written by learners without the facilitator	untested proposal

Pairing Non-examples with Examples

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, one teacher and a large group	Project one pair; every learner commits an answer at once (cards, mini-whiteboards, a poll), then pairs of learners explain; the teacher names the feature and goes to those who still miss it	Untested proposal; the tested study was one-to-one tutoring

Personalization

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large class, no adaptive software (from the wording)	Do not build thirty paths: use the sequenced-sections structure with a short check per section, two or three flexible groups by current section, and a choice board for practice	untested proposal; from the folded continuous-progress page ("does not imply a one-to-one teaching ratio")

Positive Self-talk

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and many learners	Model once for the whole class; learners write their own cue cards and rehearse in pairs; the teacher prompts "What's your cue?" only for learners who stall	Untested proposal

Pre-reading Questioning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class (from the wording)	Collect every learner's guesses at once (cards, mini-whiteboards, a poll), scan for the commonest confident wrong prediction, and spend the after-reading check on that one, with the text's refutation	untested proposal; the confront-the-misconception move is from Instruction that confronts science misconceptions … produces conceptual change more often than standard exposition [~M] (science and reading syntheses, abstracts only)

Pre-training Principle

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large class (from the wording)	Give the primer to the whole class at once from one projected picture, with learners naming parts aloud together	untested proposal

Preserve Heritage Language While Acquiring an Additional Language

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher who does not speak the learners' languages, or many languages in one room	Pair learners who share a language for first-talk on hard tasks; supply bilingual texts or glossaries per topic; recruit family or community members to read in the heritage language; keep assessment in both languages through an interpreter for decisions	untested proposal; the earlier page's requirement of "adult and peer models fluent in the heritage language"

Procedural Learning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, one teacher and a large group	Every learner shows each attempt at once (mini-whiteboards, cards, a poll); whole-class feedback on the commonest error, then the teacher goes to those still failing; pairs check each other against a worked answer for routine steps	untested proposal; contingent-support evidence is one-to-one (contingent scaffolding [~M])

Productive Failure

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large class (from the wording)	Collect attempts from a sample of groups (or a quick poll of methods) and build the instruction on the three or four most common	untested proposal

Project Space and Instructional Space

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, no tutoring system (from the wording)	Run the instructional space as prepared self-study stations or short teacher-led mini-lessons for the several learners who hit the same planned freeze point at once; keep individual gates as short written checks.	Untested proposal; tutoring systems did not beat small-group instruction [~S], so grouping learners with the same gap is not a known loss

Quiet Learning Spaces

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large group in one room, or a shared or open-plan space (from the wording)	Schedule focus and talk segments for the whole group at the same time rather than mixing them; mark one quiet zone; offer headphones or ear defenders	untested proposal

Redundancy Principle

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, mixed reading fluency (from the wording)	Produce one version with a caption or transcript toggle and let learners choose	untested proposal; fluency evidence in the rows above

Responsive Teaching

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, one teacher, a large group	Elicit from all at once (mini-whiteboards, a poll with a reason box, a quick form); respond to the commonest idea with the whole class; go to the small group still off track while others work	untested at class scale: teachers using real-time response tools report changing lessons (Teachers reported that CRS-and-TEFA use gave them more information about student thinking [+W]; Teachers use Microsoft Forms for real-time formative assessment [+W]); contingent support is shown one-to-one only (contingent scaffolding [~M])

Self-Directed Learning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift, a tutor who checks in briefly) (from the wording)	Read checkpoints by exception: an automatic content check plus a one-line self-assessment from everyone; the facilitator reads only those where the two disagree or a checkpoint was missed, for two to three minutes each; peers review one another's plans against a checklist	untested proposal; the risk it guards against is in Learners misjudge which learning strategies are effective [~M]

Self-Directed Learning

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher or expert for many learners (from the wording)	Run check-ins in small groups of 4–6 on a rota, each learner reporting against the plan in two minutes; the teacher reads only plans flagged as off track.	Untested proposal

Self-monitoring

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and many learners	Run whole-class checkpoints on a common signal; every learner records on a one-line card; the teacher compares the cards of four or five learners per checkpoint with their work, rotating so each learner is checked at least weekly; whole-class feedback on the commonest mismatch	Untested; the behaviour evidence is from individual students in single-case designs

Sequencing

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners (from the wording)	Give the prerequisite check and the stage-end items to everyone at once (cards, a quick poll), keep one main order for the class, and give a short branch (back to a prerequisite, or ahead to mixed practice) to the learners the check sorts out	untested proposal

Signaling Principle

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners (from the wording)	Build the cues into the shared materials once (slides, handouts, video) rather than relying on the teacher to point in the moment	untested proposal

Social Emotional Learning

Pattern

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class (30+) and little time (from the wording)	Run the skill lesson whole-class with paired rehearsal and cue cards; use a 2-minute written check-in instead of a sharing circle; coach a few learners each day in rotation.	Untested proposal

Standardized Test Fairness and Bias

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher or tutor prepares many learners, or facilitator time is scarce (volunteers, a short weekly session) (from the wording)	Use one full practice sitting under real conditions, self-marked against an answer key with worked reasons, and spend the scarce contact time only on the three items most learners missed; move demographic forms after the test, which needs no time	untested proposal

Strengthen ties between teachers and parents rather than pressing for remote sanctions behind teaching

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher, many families (a secondary teacher with 150+ students) (from the wording)	Rotate: a first message to every family in the first month, then a fortnightly class-level message, and individual calls to five or six families a week, starting with those not yet heard from	untested proposal

Strengths-based Approach

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group	Replace individual conferences with a written two-line strengths-and-next-target comment on one piece of work per learner per fortnight, and a learner self-record checked at the same time; use the low-stakes task in step 1 for everyone in the first week	untested proposal

Supporting Gifted and Talented Students

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher, a full mixed class, several students ahead at different points (from the wording)	Use one pre-check and two or three tiers of replacement work the teacher can run at once; check in with the ahead group together for 5 minutes twice a week rather than individually	untested proposal

Teach response precision and new associations with minimal errors, using mediators and stimulus fading

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class (from the wording)	Have all learners respond at once (cards, mini-whiteboards, a poll); correct the commonest error for the whole class, then re-present that item; work one-to-one only with those still missing it	untested proposal; correction evidence is from quizzing and lab studies (Feedback Enhances Retrieval Practice [+S])

Text Chats

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large class, or a lecture or presentation (from the wording)	Use one class chat as a question and example channel with a named monitor and planned pauses every 10–15 minutes; for task conversations, split into groups of two to four with their own chats	untested proposal; contingency at class scale is not shown (Contingent scaffolding improves learning more than fixed or absent support. [~M])

Text-to-Speech

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for a large class (from the wording)	Make speech available to all rather than assigned to a few; at each section break use a whole-class check (a quick poll or one written line) so the teacher sees who is lost, and go to those learners	untested proposal

Transfer of Learning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group	Pairs compare the two cases on one sheet and write what is the same; the teacher collects answers and states the principle from them; every learner does one unaided transfer item on paper	untested; the comparison evidence includes classroom experiments in the meta-analysis but no class-size result

Understanding must be cultivated through exploration, not described or told

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher with a large group or many groups (from the wording)	Groups explore; the teacher circulates with three or four prepared guiding questions per week, joins each group once, and critiques a sample of six to eight works with the whole room	Untested at scale; the recorded episodes show the unprepared teacher interjecting explanation was the more frequent pattern (Subtle teacher guidance, not imposition, enables interdisciplinary integration in small-group deliberation [~W])

Universal Design For Learning

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom with one teacher and a large group	Offer choice at the level of the whole task (two versions of one activity) rather than per learner; one shared rubric displayed for all formats; check-ins on who is stuck	untested proposal

Use computer tools that let students explore hypotheses and solutions faster so they can test many ideas without frustration

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
classroom, one teacher and many learners at screens	Run rounds in pairs at one device; groups hold up or post their prediction before testing so the teacher can scan for one-change-at-a-time; the teacher circulates to groups whose log is empty	untested proposal; guidance evidence is pooled across settings and does not separate a teacher circulating from built-in prompts (Guidance during inquiry learning produces a medium-to-large improvement in learners' use of inquiry skills during the inquiry [~M])

Validity, Reliability, and Bias in Classroom Assessment

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher marks for a large group (from the wording)	Use selected-response or short-answer items for breadth; reserve judgement-scored tasks for the objectives that need them; mark one question across all scripts at a time rather than one script at a time; re-mark the first ten scripts at the end to check for drift	untested proposal

Wise Feedback Across Racial and Ethnic Difference

Principle

If the brief says…	Then change…	Basis
One teacher for many learners, or scarce facilitator time (volunteers, a busy shift, a tutor checking in briefly) (from the wording)	Write one framing sentence once and reuse it, but add one clause that names something in this learner's work; cap the critique at two points; a fixed time budget of about 2–3 minutes per piece: 30 seconds for the framing, 1–2 minutes for two critiques with next steps, 30 seconds for the revision date	untested proposal; a template with no personal clause is expected to read as generic