Theories: A

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• A broadened, context-aware conception of scientific excellence encompassing resilience, mentorship, community impact, flexibility, and navigation of structural challenges - The editorial proposes an alternative view of excellence that goes beyond narrow measurable indicators such as high-impact publications, citation scores, and institutional prestige.
• A cognitive load based classification of one-step equations into Type 1 and Type 2 by operational and relational lines - The article proposes a framework that classifies one-step equations by counting operational lines (steps that alter the problem state while preserving equality) and relational lines (lines showing a q
• A conceptual model deriving transfer from all-or-none learned common and falsely-common task elements and the product-moment correlation - The model treats tasks as sets of mutually independent hypothetical elements whose extension corresponds to average mastery time.
• A data-driven, ten-type taxonomy of teacher feedback on open-ended mathematics responses - This taxonomy organizes teacher-authored feedback into 10 empirically derived types: Direct Correction, Targeted Affirmation, Hinting, Non-verbal Affirmation, Rhetorical Question, Show Your Work, Gene
• A data-to-difference improvement process running from collecting data to evaluating progress - The article outlines key characteristics of a process for moving from data to making a difference in education.
• A factor-based taxonomy of seventeen indicators of elementary school organizational development - The appendix organizes school organizational development into factors—School Leadership, Parent-Community Ties, Professional Capacity, Learning Climate, Instructional Guidance, and Relational Trust—ea
• A feminist view of science based on interconnectedness, relationships as webs, and legitimate subjectivity - The paper advances an account of science, drawing on Gilligan, Fox Keller and others, in which relationships between phenomena are seen as a connected web rather than a hierarchy, subjectivity and hum
• A framework of design considerations for attendance incentives - The article introduces a framework intended to fill a guidance gap around attendance incentives.
• A framework that balances Type I and Type II errors for addressing the multiple testing problem in social policy impact evaluations - The article presents a framework for handling the multiple testing problem in social policy impact evaluations.
• A practical framework for emergent bilinguals' reading fluency development - The paper distills the eleven reviewed studies and the classical Kuhn studies into a sequenced framework for EB fluency instruction: "Begin with accessible, meaningful texts; provide teacher or adult
• A procedural goals-methods-facilities model for planning science facilities - The paper presents a procedural model in which educational specifications are drafted by first defining goals, then determining instructional methods, then specifying facilities and services.
• A recommended process with detailed protocols and tools for defining problems and determining their root causes in schools - The paper proposes a process, protocols and tools for school teams to define problems to be investigated and determine their root causes, drawing on facilitation experience in schools and industrial s
• A response-time-conditional approach to detecting disengaged survey responses - The article presents a conditional approach to identifying disengaged survey responses in which results from a variety of detection methods are conditioned on response times.
• A six-concept bipolar classification system for LOA measurement techniques - Chapter III presents a classification of LOA measurement techniques built from bipolar concepts: direct vs.
• A systematic framework of 35 indicators grouped under five quality criteria for MLE in Italian elementary schools - The article presents a systematic framework of "35 indicators for good MLE activities in Italian elementary schools." The indicators are organized under five quality criteria — teaching methods, actor
• A taxonomy of history questions classifies questions by the type and structure of the required response, not by surface interrogative form - The report presents a taxonomy of the questions middle school students are expected to answer when studying history textbooks.
• A three-circle framework for computational thinking integration: skills, practices, and inclusive pedagogies - The report introduces a framework for integrating computational thinking into K-12 teaching, organized as three concentric circles.
• A three-level trajectory of instructional coaching situated within a recursive teacher change process - The brief's central framework organizes coaching responsibilities along a trajectory of three levels — initial steps, necessary supports, and sustaining efforts — while mapping mentoring and advocacy
• A three-mode model of preservice teachers' probabilistic reasoning: mathematical, subjective, and outcome-oriented - The study models PSMTs' probabilistic reasoning in a unified schema with three categories: mathematically oriented thinkers relying on theoretical probability, subjectively oriented thinkers using per
• A three-stage framework for promoting noticing through collaborative feedback tasks (pre-noticing, while-noticing, post-noticing) - The article proposes a framework in which noticing in EFL writing is promoted through three sequenced, interrelated collaborative feedback task (CFT) stages.
• A three-type taxonomy of competency-based mathematics assessment: traditional tests, checklist formats, and authentic portfolio-embedded assessment - The guide organizes its model assessments along a three-type axis developed with the Ohio Council of Teachers of Mathematics task force for implementing NCTM Standards in grades 1 through 8.
• AAC decision-making framework organized around unaided versus aided system options - The article organizes AAC selection as a decision process across decision points, grounded in the taxonomy that "AAC systems can be divided into two broad categories, unaided and aided." Unaided AAC i
• Absolute distributional sentiment divergence (ADSD) as a distribution-level fairness metric for generated replies - ADSD is a proposed metric that quantifies sentiment bias by measuring the divergence between the sentiment-score distributions a model produces for original posts and for gender-counterfactual posts.
• Academic Communities of Engagement (ACE) framework, expanded to include an institutional/school community of support - The ACE framework explains how supports help online learners engage affectively, behaviorally, and cognitively.
• Accountable talk: three accountabilities — to knowledge, reasoning, and community - The primer describes accountable talk (attributed to Resnick et al., 2018) as a concept emphasizing that productive dialogue holds students accountable to knowledge, reasoning, and community.
• Accuracy-fairness trade-off framework for educational predictive models using group fairness metrics - The article organizes the evaluation of student performance prediction around group fairness, operationalized through the Equal Opportunity Difference (EOD), which measures maximum disparity in true-p
• ACT* (Adaptive Control of Thought): automatization as proceduralization of declarative knowledge through practice - Anderson's ACT* model, described in the review as the most widely accepted theory of how automaticity is brought about, holds that knowledge starts as explicit declarative information, "knowledge that
• Activity theory frames human activity as a system of six interacting elements (subject, object, tools, community, rules, division of labor) - The article presents activity theory as a socio-cultural and historical lens for holistically analyzing human activity systems.
• Activity theory models learning as participation in a collective activity system whose elements dynamically interact - The article presents activity theory, tracing it to Vygotsky and Leont'ev and using Engestrom's (1987) graphical model of a human activity system.
• Activity theory: a mediated activity system framework for analyzing cognition in context - The paper presents activity theory, originating with Leont'ev and extended by Cole, Engestrom, Nardi, Kuutti, and Kaptelinin, as a descriptive framework centered on a "mediated activity system" that "
• Adaptive Cycles Framework - Adapted from ecological systems theory, the adaptive cycles framework describes learning as moving through four non-linear phases — problematization, reorganization, growth, and conservation — each of
• Adaptive expertise in teaching: adaptivity as a key characteristic of effective teaching, with identifiable core practices - The article works within a framework in which being adaptive is central to effective teaching: "While being adaptive is a key characteristic of effective teaching, teachers can be resistant to change.
• Adolescence as a neurobiological 'reconstruction zone' — a sensitive period in which experiential input shapes executive function and social cognition - The review presents an emergent neurobiological model in which "the brain undergoes dynamic changes throughout adolescence" and structural and behavioral changes interact.
• Adolescent Brain Development - Adolescent brain development is marked by a maturational mismatch — the limbic system's reward and emotion circuitry matures years before the prefrontal cortex's executive-control circuitry — that hel
• Adolescent Peer Group Structure - Adolescent peer relationships are organized through overlapping structures — small, interaction-based cliques and larger, reputation-based crowds — with individual acceptance further describable throu
• Affordance-based assessment framework: linguistic ability as emergent property of organism-environment interaction - The paper proposes an affordance-based framework for language assessment that shifts attention from measuring discrete outcomes toward documenting how learners engage with their affordance landscape,
• Agency/communion as figure/ground rather than polarity - The paper's central organizing framework reconceives Bakan's agency/communion polarity.
• AIGC affordance as enacted competence within affordance-actualization theory - The article grounds its model in Affordance-Actualization Theory, defining AIGC affordance as "students' perceived generative action possibilities in human-AI interaction" and operationalizing it as e
• Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour as a framework for puppetry-based ecology teaching - The article uses Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour as its theoretical framework, holding that a learner's decision to participate in learning activities "is shaped by three main elements: their atti
• Algorithms defined as precise step-by-step plans with four characteristics: finite, inputs and outputs, effective, definite - The webinar defines algorithms as "precise step-by-step plans or procedures to meet an end goal or to solve a problem" and presents four defining characteristics teachers can use when introducing the
• Align technology use with specific learning goals rather than adopting technology for its own sake - The guide's overarching framework holds that the value of educational technology lies in how it is used, not in the technology itself, because technologies evolve rapidly.
• Ambitious mashups: cyberlearning projects combine novel technologies, theories, methods, and equity goals in frontier-oriented integrations - The report's central organizing concept: cyberlearning projects are mashups that 'combined many elements in a novel integration, to explore a promising approach to a particular learning goal or contex
• An anatomy of autonomy in early literacy learning distinguishing autonomy of outcome from autonomy in the learning process - The paper proposes a taxonomy of autonomy in early literacy with two main axes.
• An assessment-planning framework for maker education built on eight principles and five practices - The paper's central contribution is an organizing framework answering its essential question about assessing maker education.
• Analytic agency framework: three stages of data analysis (exploration, interpretation, confirmation), each classified as primarily human-led or computer-led - The framework treats data analysis as proceeding through three stages: exploration (how data exist and are transformed or selected), interpretation (how patterns are made sense of, labelled, or theori
• Analytics Model for Teacher Inquiry (AMTI): an eight-step circular model for analytics-informed teacher inquiry - The AMTI is a process model guiding teachers through analytics-informed teacher inquiry in eight steps: motivation, purpose, inquiry questions, data needs, data collection, sense-making, interpretatio
• Anderson's ACT theory of memory: declarative knowledge as a propositional network activated by spread of activation - The report describes Anderson's ACT theory as a general theory of the architecture and basic processes of the human information processing system, one aspect of which is memory.
• Anderson's causal model of how reduced class size affects student achievement - Anderson (2000) developed a causal model explaining why class size reduction should enhance achievement, depicted in the review's Figure 1.
• Anderson's six modes of interaction as an architectonic model of online education - The article reviews Anderson's (2008) interactive model of online education, in which interaction is defined as a reciprocal event involving at least two objects and two actions, and six forms of inte
• Andragogy: Knowles' framework of assumptions about adult learning, distinct from pedagogy - Andragogy is Malcolm Knowles' theoretical framework of assumptions about how adults learn, argued since 1968 under the banner of "andragogy, not pedagogy." The essay explains that the term predates Kn
• Applications of Knowledge Tracing Beyond Student Learning - Beyond resource recommendation and adaptive learning, the survey states "the KT methods can be expanded to be utilized in any systems that necessitate continuous evaluation of user capabilities or sta
• Apps's four-category framework for a working philosophy of adult education - Apps proposes a framework adult educators can use to identify, analyze, judge, and evaluate their beliefs about adult education.
• AR enhanced analytics as a constructivist-, experiential-, and cognitively-grounded integration of AR technology with learning analytics - The review frames AR enhanced analytics as the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data from AR interactions in learning environments, grounded in constructivist, experiential, situ
• Architectonics: the philosophical tradition of building and relating meaning, knowledge, and experience - Architectonics is presented as a concept permeating the Western philosophical tradition, defined by Holquist as "the science of relations" and by the article as "a means of contemplating the various w
• ARCS Model of Motivational Design - Keller's ARCS model holds that learner motivation depends on four conditions — Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction — and provides a systematic process for diagnosing which condition is
• ARCS Motivational Design Model as a diagnostic framework for computer-based learning motivation - The article adopts Keller's ARCS model as both theoretical framework and measurement basis, holding that "learning motivation is influenced by four components: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Sa
• ARCS strategy sub-component taxonomy (four components, three sub-components each) - The digest presents ARCS as a two-level taxonomy for designing motivating instruction.
• As-far-as-a-verb-can-check-its-features theory of adverb order and scope within TP - The author proposes a principle, named the "as-far-as-a-verb-can-check-its-features theory", to explain adverb order and scope.
• ASK (Attitude, Skills, Knowledge) framework for analysing collaborative learning in PBL - The ASK framework classifies statements about collaborative learning into three dimensions: Attitudes (dispositions towards group work), Skills (capabilities needed for effective collaboration), and K
• Assessment for learning lens: assessment as ongoing practice supporting learning rather than end-of-task grading - The primer presents "the lens of assessment for learning", a shift from viewing assessment as an end-of-task grading activity toward "an ongoing practice to support learning." It distinguishes summati
• Assumptions-and-functions framework of student-centered learning environments - The paper identifies common assumptions underlying student-centered learning environments, drawn from "a synthesis of empirical research, theory, and supporting examples" in situated cognition, microw
• Asymdystopia: small biases raise the risk of false inferences as studies are powered to detect smaller impacts - Asymdystopia is the authors' name for the phenomenon whereby "the potential for small biases to increase the risk of making false inferences as studies are powered to detect smaller impacts" grows.
• Asymmetry framework for analyzing equality in dual language programs - The article develops asymmetry, defined as "a lack of proportion," as an analytical tool for studying whether a dual language program delivers equal educational opportunity.
• Attachment internal working models as cognitive schemes linking early relationships to flexibility and adjustment - The article frames attachment through Bowlby's internal working models: early caregiving relationships form mental representations of ego and others that guide later close relationships.
• Attachment Theory account of social anxiety in language learning - In its recommendations, the article invokes Attachment Theory (citing Erozkan, 2009) to explain and address the social-anxiety component of foreign language speaking anxiety.
• Attribution Theory - Attribution Theory holds that a learner's motivation after success or failure depends less on what actually caused the outcome than on what the learner believes caused it, classified along the dimensi
• Augmented synthetic control method for estimating counterfactual outcomes of no-deadlines programs - The memo applies the augmented synthetic control method (Ben-Michael, Feller, and Rothstein 2021a), which the article says uses "a specifically weighted average of comparison units for which the pre-i
• Authentic intellectual work framework: construction of knowledge through disciplined inquiry producing products with value beyond school - The report defines authentic intellectual work as a standard for judging the intellectual quality of teaching and learning, contrasting it with routine school tasks.
• Authentic intellectual work framework: construction of knowledge, elaborated written communication, and connection to student lives - The manual's research strand rests on an intellectual foundation drawn from Fred Newmann and Gary Wehlage's work on authentic achievement.
• Automaticity theory as the theoretical basis of repeated reading - The report grounds repeated reading in the theory of automaticity, developed in the 1960s and 1970s.
• Automaticity theory: automatizing component subskills frees controlled processing for higher-order functions such as comprehension - The article draws on McLaughlin's (1987) cognitive theory and information processing models, in which learning a complex cognitive skill requires the automatization of component subskills.
• Automaticity Theory: fluency develops through repeated practice that frees attention for comprehension - Automaticity Theory (AT) is presented as a main theory in developing reading fluency, emphasizing word recognition.
• Automaticity-frees-attention account of transcription skills in early literacy - This account holds that achieving automaticity in low-level transcription skills frees attentional resources for higher-level processes.
• Autonomic (rather than cortical) arousal account of the word-arousal memory effect - The article proposes that the emotionally engendered by words affects retention through autonomic rather than cortical arousal.