Claims: B 1

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• B2 problems required more effort than B1 problems, with lower success rates and greater variance in conversations, messages, and code executions - B2 problems required more effort than B1 problems, with lower success rates and greater variance in conversations, messages, and code executions
• BA, MA and PhD teachers do not differ significantly in awareness of a critical approach to EFL classroom content - BA, MA and PhD teachers do not differ significantly in awareness of a critical approach to EFL classroom content
• Bachelor's DAI varies sharply by race/ethnicity and gender: Black and Latino young men are projected at 10 and 13 percent versus a 19 percent district average - Bachelor's DAI varies sharply by race/ethnicity and gender: Black and Latino young men are projected at 10 and 13 percent versus a 19 percent district average
• Back-hand shows the largest average deviation from the median, indicating the least stable speed, while medium slant shows the least deviation in the one-minute test - Back-hand shows the largest average deviation from the median, indicating the least stable speed, while medium slant shows the least deviation in the one-minute test
• Back-translation evaluation outperforms LLM-as-a-Judge (code+image) in agreement with human raters across four models - Back-translation evaluation outperforms LLM-as-a-Judge (code+image) in agreement with human raters across four models
• Back-translation yields higher human agreement on spatial checks, while LLM-as-a-Judge considerably outperforms it on the angle-label check - Back-translation yields higher human agreement on spatial checks, while LLM-as-a-Judge considerably outperforms it on the angle-label check
• Background characteristics independently predict 9th-grade off-track indicators: boys are 1.7 times as likely to be suspended and 3.5 times as likely to have a GPA below a C than girls - Background characteristics independently predict 9th-grade off-track indicators: boys are 1.7 times as likely to be suspended and 3.5 times as likely to have a GPA below a C than girls
• Background demographic factors show mixed and outcome-dependent associations: age and gender relate differently to wellbeing versus depression and stress outcomes - Background demographic factors show mixed and outcome-dependent associations: age and gender relate differently to wellbeing versus depression and stress outcomes
• Background knowledge has a greater impact on comprehension of expository texts than narrative texts for primary children - Background knowledge has a greater impact on comprehension of expository texts than narrative texts for primary children
• Background measures show no group differences in age, intelligence, or English vocabulary, confirming group matching - Background measures show no group differences in age, intelligence, or English vocabulary, confirming group matching
• Background variables (need for cognition, test anxiety, mindset, puzzle experience) showed no consistent moderating patterns across the three experiments - Background variables (need for cognition, test anxiety, mindset, puzzle experience) showed no consistent moderating patterns across the three experiments
• Backward curiosity may be an optimal starting point for promoting student learning - Backward curiosity may be an optimal starting point for promoting student learning
• Backward digit span performance does not emerge until about age 5, whereas forward span is measurable from age 3 - Backward digit span performance does not emerge until about age 5, whereas forward span is measurable from age 3
• Backward fading and principle prompts supported transfer in probability learning - Backward fading and principle prompts supported transfer in probability learning
• Backward masking produces a large, reliable accuracy decrement across all three reading tasks - Backward masking produces a large, reliable accuracy decrement across all three reading tasks
• Backward-associated word pairs produce a foresight bias: judgments of learning are inflated relative to actual recall when the dominant association runs from target to cue - Backward-associated word pairs produce a foresight bias: judgments of learning are inflated relative to actual recall when the dominant association runs from target to cue
• Baerwald's study of motor imagery finds no relation between development of musical performance skill and degree of native motor endowment - Baerwald's study of motor imagery finds no relation between development of musical performance skill and degree of native motor endowment
• Balance and vestibular functioning are impaired in children with ADHD, but evidence is sparse - Balance and vestibular functioning are impaired in children with ADHD, but evidence is sparse
• Balance training improves dynamic balance performance but not functional balance or postural sway - Balance training improves dynamic balance performance but not functional balance or postural sway
• Balance training improves memory in healthy adults relative to relaxation training - Balance training improves memory in healthy adults relative to relaxation training
• Balance training improves spatial cognition in healthy adults relative to relaxation training - Balance training improves spatial cognition in healthy adults relative to relaxation training
• Balanced bicultural identity showed no relation to working memory or inhibitory control performance in congruent and incongruent Dot Task trials - Balanced bicultural identity showed no relation to working memory or inhibitory control performance in congruent and incongruent Dot Task trials
• Balanced Leadership® may increase school leader retention at the school (potentially positive effects rating) - Balanced Leadership® may increase school leader retention at the school (potentially positive effects rating)
• Balanced SEL frameworks cover intrapersonal, interpersonal, and cognitive competencies and mix skills, knowledge, and attitudes - Balanced SEL frameworks cover intrapersonal, interpersonal, and cognitive competencies and mix skills, knowledge, and attitudes
• Balancing the dataset significantly improved model predictive performance but increased bias under demographic parity - Balancing the dataset significantly improved model predictive performance but increased bias under demographic parity
• Balancing the need for pilot-testing with the goal of scaled change is a common challenge to community college reform efforts - Balancing the need for pilot-testing with the goal of scaled change is a common challenge to community college reform efforts
• BARR produces a larger statistically significant effect on NWEA MAP math scores in a single-school student-level randomized study, stronger for struggling students - BARR produces a larger statistically significant effect on NWEA MAP math scores in a single-school student-level randomized study, stronger for struggling students
• BARR produces a small statistically significant positive effect on NWEA MAP math outcomes in a multi-site student-level randomized trial - BARR produces a small statistically significant positive effect on NWEA MAP math outcomes in a multi-site student-level randomized trial
• Barriers to integrating AAC into daily routines and accessing AAC programs are frequently reported despite high perceived benefits - Barriers to integrating AAC into daily routines and accessing AAC programs are frequently reported despite high perceived benefits
• Barriers to using equity visualizations included lack of classroom diversity and teachers' own equity beliefs - Barriers to using equity visualizations included lack of classroom diversity and teachers' own equity beliefs
• Barton students more than a year below grade level in eighth grade dropped out at higher rates than students at or above grade level - Barton students more than a year below grade level in eighth grade dropped out at higher rates than students at or above grade level
• Base strength predicted outcome improvement better than growth in aggregate, and pooled regression estimates exceeded school fixed effects estimates - Base strength predicted outcome improvement better than growth in aggregate, and pooled regression estimates exceeded school fixed effects estimates
• Base-10 blocks training was followed by a significant drop in kindergarteners' numerals-condition scores - Base-10 blocks training was followed by a significant drop in kindergarteners' numerals-condition scores
• Base-model size effects persist after LoRA adaptation: the 7B model gained more on ROUGE-2 and ROUGE-L, yet 3B-r16 outperformed 7B-r4 on ROUGE-L and BERTScore-F1 - Base-model size effects persist after LoRA adaptation: the 7B model gained more on ROUGE-2 and ROUGE-L, yet 3B-r16 outperformed 7B-r4 on ROUGE-L and BERTScore-F1
• Baseline capability moderates AI productivity benefits non-monotonically across AI's capability frontier - Baseline capability moderates AI productivity benefits non-monotonically across AI's capability frontier
• Baseline coaches produced weaker or absent learning gains: RBF improved only failure count, MIA neither outcome - Baseline coaches produced weaker or absent learning gains: RBF improved only failure count, MIA neither outcome
• Baseline correlations: teacher confidence and enthusiasm and expectations dimensions correlated with posttest achievement, but support for mathematical discourse did not - Baseline correlations: teacher confidence and enthusiasm and expectations dimensions correlated with posttest achievement, but support for mathematical discourse did not
• Baseline equivalence held between conditions, but both groups scored far below the grade 8 proficiency cut score - Baseline equivalence held between conditions, but both groups scored far below the grade 8 proficiency cut score
• Baseline hypothesis generators saturate after 5–10 effective hypotheses while the proposed method keeps improving - Baseline hypothesis generators saturate after 5–10 effective hypotheses while the proposed method keeps improving
• Baseline interaction quality moderates component-outcome relations, with strongest relations for teachers with the lowest baseline quality - Baseline interaction quality moderates component-outcome relations, with strongest relations for teachers with the lowest baseline quality
• Baseline intercorrelations among the six tests were small, suggesting the battery covered relatively independent cognitive processes - Baseline intercorrelations among the six tests were small, suggesting the battery covered relatively independent cognitive processes
• Baseline LLM reflective responses were highly detectable, and persona and typo prompts progressively reduced separability from real student responses - Baseline LLM reflective responses were highly detectable, and persona and typo prompts progressively reduced separability from real student responses
• Baseline LR and XGBoost models achieve comparable predictive performance on OULAD, with XGBoost slightly higher AUC-ROC - Baseline LR and XGBoost models achieve comparable predictive performance on OULAD, with XGBoost slightly higher AUC-ROC
• Baseline motivational states shape perceived AI benefits more than demographics, with female-coded gender the only significant demographic effect (lower perceived competence relief) - Baseline motivational states shape perceived AI benefits more than demographics, with female-coded gender the only significant demographic effect (lower perceived competence relief)
• Baseline reading and untaught Grade 2 vocabulary scores correlated moderately with near-, mid-, and far-transfer comprehension outcomes - Baseline reading and untaught Grade 2 vocabulary scores correlated moderately with near-, mid-, and far-transfer comprehension outcomes
• Baseline versus code-augmented performance differs significantly for story and symbolic representations but not word-equations, with small effect sizes - Baseline versus code-augmented performance differs significantly for story and symbolic representations but not word-equations, with small effect sizes
• Baseline-only training was insufficient for sustained measurement accuracy; healthcare workers recommended refresher training - Baseline-only training was insufficient for sustained measurement accuracy; healthcare workers recommended refresher training
• Baseline-to-final performance change was centered near zero with a mean of −1.83 - Baseline-to-final performance change was centered near zero with a mean of −1.83
• Basic computational concepts in a voluntary video game were achievable by children aged 3–6, with full mastery possible by age 4 regardless of gender - Basic computational concepts in a voluntary video game were achievable by children aged 3–6, with full mastery possible by age 4 regardless of gender
• Basic conclusions about male-female achievement gaps and changes in gaps as students progress through school may change when models account for test effort - Basic conclusions about male-female achievement gaps and changes in gaps as students progress through school may change when models account for test effort
• Basic counting competencies alone are considerably predictive of fifth grade mathematics achievement when modeled without advanced counting - Basic counting competencies alone are considerably predictive of fifth grade mathematics achievement when modeled without advanced counting
• Basic DCT mechanisms can be used to model diverse educational phenomena - Basic DCT mechanisms can be used to model diverse educational phenomena
• Basic linguistic skills and working memory are indirectly related to fifth-grade fraction skills via arithmetic skills - Basic linguistic skills and working memory are indirectly related to fifth-grade fraction skills via arithmetic skills
• Basic linguistic skills and working memory are indirectly related to fifth-grade geometric skills via arithmetic skills - Basic linguistic skills and working memory are indirectly related to fifth-grade geometric skills via arithmetic skills
• Basic perioperative care competencies transfer most smoothly to clinical practice after neurosurgical specialty nurse training - Basic perioperative care competencies transfer most smoothly to clinical practice after neurosurgical specialty nurse training
• Basic prompt injection attempts failed or were detected: instruction manipulation alone failed in all 9 iterations, role-playing without concealment was detected in output, and metadata-hidden injections failed in all 9 iterations - Basic prompt injection attempts failed or were detected: instruction manipulation alone failed in all 9 iterations, role-playing without concealment was detected in output, and metadata-hidden injecti
• Basic psychological need satisfaction is strongly associated with learning engagement among medical undergraduates - Basic psychological need satisfaction is strongly associated with learning engagement among medical undergraduates
• Basic speech textbooks have not incorporated contemporary rhetorical theory, remaining nearly unchanged across decades - Basic speech textbooks have not incorporated contemporary rhetorical theory, remaining nearly unchanged across decades
• Basics of systems thinking and conceptual modeling skills can be imparted within less than one semester - Basics of systems thinking and conceptual modeling skills can be imparted within less than one semester
• Basketball players solved average and percentage problems better when framed by basketball practices than as school math worksheets, using different strategies across contexts - Basketball players solved average and percentage problems better when framed by basketball practices than as school math worksheets, using different strategies across contexts
• Bayesian adaptive design benefits study subjects by allocating them to more effective treatment arms - Bayesian adaptive design benefits study subjects by allocating them to more effective treatment arms
• Bayesian analyses provide strong evidence that the modality effect reverses in VR for recall, comprehension and germane load - Bayesian analyses provide strong evidence that the modality effect reverses in VR for recall, comprehension and germane load
• Bayesian analyses strongly support sign priming for small addition problems in older adults but only anecdotal support for +1 problems - Bayesian analyses strongly support sign priming for small addition problems in older adults but only anecdotal support for +1 problems
• Bayesian GLASSO shows good coverage of uncertainty for strength and closeness centrality, but uncertainty in betweenness centrality is estimated less well - Bayesian GLASSO shows good coverage of uncertainty for strength and closeness centrality, but uncertainty in betweenness centrality is estimated less well
• Bayesian network modeling ITS showed a higher weighted mean effect size than model tracing and constraint-based modeling, but only under a fixed-effect model - Bayesian network modeling ITS showed a higher weighted mean effect size than model tracing and constraint-based modeling, but only under a fixed-effect model
• BCIRC has potentially positive effects on English language development (effect size 0.29, not statistically significant) - BCIRC has potentially positive effects on English language development (effect size 0.29, not statistically significant)
• BCIRC has potentially positive effects on reading achievement for Spanish-speaking English language learners (effect size 0.61, not statistically significant after clustering correction) - BCIRC has potentially positive effects on reading achievement for Spanish-speaking English language learners (effect size 0.61, not statistically significant after clustering correction)
• BCLAD-authorized educators are in low supply in California and their assignments are often misaligned with bilingual program demand - BCLAD-authorized educators are in low supply in California and their assignments are often misaligned with bilingual program demand
• BEAGLE achieves higher behavioral fidelity to real student cognitive-behavior distributions than LLM prompting and agent baselines on a Particle Simulator task (DKL = 0.31 vs. baselines ≥ 0.53) - BEAGLE achieves higher behavioral fidelity to real student cognitive-behavior distributions than LLM prompting and agent baselines on a Particle Simulator task (DKL = 0.31 vs.
• BEAGLE generalizes across tasks and LLM backbones: on the out-of-distribution Gradient Descent task it still shrinks DKL by ≥3×, raises error recurrence to ≥79%, and improves all three perceptual scores - BEAGLE generalizes across tasks and LLM backbones: on the out-of-distribution Gradient Descent task it still shrinks DKL by ≥3×, raises error recurrence to ≥79%, and improves all three perceptual scor
• BEAGLE's error recurrence rate (86.2%) falls within the realistic novice envelope, far above vanilla LLMs (7.8%) and below rule-based SimStudent's mechanical saturation (92.0%) - BEAGLE's error recurrence rate (86.2%) falls within the realistic novice envelope, far above vanilla LLMs (7.8%) and below rule-based SimStudent's mechanical saturation (92.0%)
• BEAGLE's HIGH and LOW performer profiles differentiate by SRL strategy: HIGH performers allocate 72% of steps to PLANNING and MONITORING while LOW performers spend 50.8% trapped in ENACTING - BEAGLE's HIGH and LOW performer profiles differentiate by SRL strategy: HIGH performers allocate 72% of steps to PLANNING and MONITORING while LOW performers spend 50.8% trapped in ENACTING
• Beam search-based self-refinement improves simulated solution alignment with predicted student behavior - Beam search-based self-refinement improves simulated solution alignment with predicted student behavior
• Beating-the-odds schools have substantially more positive school climate than the other California middle and high schools in a 1,715-school survey sample - Beating-the-odds schools have substantially more positive school climate than the other California middle and high schools in a 1,715-school survey sample
• Because learning theories are not operationalized into system structures, pedagogical use of digital resources is delegated to teachers' judgment at the moment of use - Because learning theories are not operationalized into system structures, pedagogical use of digital resources is delegated to teachers' judgment at the moment of use
• Because many delinquent girls learned quickly and accurately, the article concludes moral defects must be partially explained on grounds other than inferior mentality - Because many delinquent girls learned quickly and accurately, the article concludes moral defects must be partially explained on grounds other than inferior mentality
• Becoming knowledge-creating learners requires developing specific metaskills - Becoming knowledge-creating learners requires developing specific metaskills
• Becoming too focused on a single college option left a highly qualified student with no fallback when that option fell through, and she did not enroll in college - Becoming too focused on a single college option left a highly qualified student with no fallback when that option fell through, and she did not enroll in college
• Bedtime routine interventions improved maternal mood, maternal confidence, and, in one study, marital satisfaction, beyond child sleep outcomes - Bedtime routine interventions improved maternal mood, maternal confidence, and, in one study, marital satisfaction, beyond child sleep outcomes
• Before developing historical thinking skills, students approach the past with common sense, including presentism — seeing past people as sharing contemporary values - Before developing historical thinking skills, students approach the past with common sense, including presentism — seeing past people as sharing contemporary values
• Before expanded options, only 13% of CPS freshmen who failed spring Algebra I recovered the credit over the summer - Before expanded options, only 13% of CPS freshmen who failed spring Algebra I recovered the credit over the summer
• Before instruction, a strong sixth grader infers integer order reasoning from out-of-school thermometer experiences, with zero as a significant concept - Before instruction, a strong sixth grader infers integer order reasoning from out-of-school thermometer experiences, with zero as a significant concept
• Before instruction, control students started significantly higher on basic-value measures, yet were overtaken after instruction - Before instruction, control students started significantly higher on basic-value measures, yet were overtaken after instruction
• Before instruction, physics students show skepticism about LLM learning impacts, agreeing that over-reliance risks dependence, false confidence, and reduced conceptual understanding - Before instruction, physics students show skepticism about LLM learning impacts, agreeing that over-reliance risks dependence, false confidence, and reduced conceptual understanding
• Before intervention, treatment and control kindergartners did not differ on age, demographics, vocabulary, phoneme segmentation, letter knowledge, or reading - Before intervention, treatment and control kindergartners did not differ on age, demographics, vocabulary, phoneme segmentation, letter knowledge, or reading
• Before metacognitive skill training, fifth graders possessed none of the metacognitive skills later trained, so metacognitive skills are task-specific at first and become domain-general only through transfer - Before metacognitive skill training, fifth graders possessed none of the metacognitive skills later trained, so metacognitive skills are task-specific at first and become domain-general only through t
• Before pedagogical training, prospective university teachers have lower professional vision scores than current faculty teachers - Before pedagogical training, prospective university teachers have lower professional vision scores than current faculty teachers
• Before self-scoring, high-performing primary students make more accurate monitoring judgments of math problem performance than low-performing students (unskilled-and-unaware effect) - Before self-scoring, high-performing primary students make more accurate monitoring judgments of math problem performance than low-performing students (unskilled-and-unaware effect)
• Before self-scoring, the unskilled-and-unaware effect in regulation accuracy appears on multiplication but not on division tasks - Before self-scoring, the unskilled-and-unaware effect in regulation accuracy appears on multiplication but not on division tasks
• Before the intervention, most students could not write assumptions and conclusions, and only one student achieved the maximum pre-test score - Before the intervention, most students could not write assumptions and conclusions, and only one student achieved the maximum pre-test score
• Before this review, available evidence for jigsaw effectiveness was scant and mixed, with neither meta-analysis nor systematic review - Before this review, available evidence for jigsaw effectiveness was scant and mixed, with neither meta-analysis nor systematic review
• Before treatment, teachers' views toward TBLT differed significantly from both learner groups' views - Before treatment, teachers' views toward TBLT differed significantly from both learner groups' views
• Beginner EFL learners taught with proactive FOF scored significantly higher on a grammar posttest than learners taught with reactive FOF - Beginner EFL learners taught with proactive FOF scored significantly higher on a grammar posttest than learners taught with reactive FOF
• Beginning teachers are more positive about REACH than teachers with more years of experience - Beginning teachers are more positive about REACH than teachers with more years of experience
• Beginning teachers borrow at much higher rates than experienced teachers, with about 65% of teachers in their first 10 years having ever borrowed versus 41.4% of those with more than 30 years - Beginning teachers borrow at much higher rates than experienced teachers, with about 65% of teachers in their first 10 years having ever borrowed versus 41.4% of those with more than 30 years
• Beginning teachers nationally earn about 20% less than other college graduates, a wage gap widening to 30% by mid-career - Beginning teachers nationally earn about 20% less than other college graduates, a wage gap widening to 30% by mid-career
• Behavior activation interventions show a dose-response pattern — completing more conscientiousness challenges produced larger increases — but one behavior activation trial found no significant change - Behavior activation interventions show a dose-response pattern — completing more conscientiousness challenges produced larger increases — but one behavior activation trial found no significant change
• Behavior indicators show inconsistent predictive strength for high school graduation: several studies find them strongly predictive, but behavior was not predictive in Chicago above and beyond grades and attendance - Behavior indicators show inconsistent predictive strength for high school graduation: several studies find them strongly predictive, but behavior was not predictive in Chicago above and beyond grades
• Behavior modification programs relying on rewards rarely produce lasting changes in attitudes or behavior, and children whose parents frequently use rewards tend to be less generous - Behavior modification programs relying on rewards rarely produce lasting changes in attitudes or behavior, and children whose parents frequently use rewards tend to be less generous
• Behavior-aware AI-tutor prompting was associated with a decrease in Passive inter-query windows from 50.0% to 20.7% in a nonrandomized between-deployment comparison - Behavior-aware AI-tutor prompting was associated with a decrease in Passive inter-query windows from 50.0% to 20.7% in a nonrandomized between-deployment comparison
• Behavior-prediction accuracy rises with more past learning records, reaching 0.94 at 40 records - Behavior-prediction accuracy rises with more past learning records, reaching 0.94 at 40 records
• Behavioral and environmental regulation knowledge demonstrated during digital SRL training predicted biology midterm and final exam grades, while knowledge of SRL processes did not - Behavioral and environmental regulation knowledge demonstrated during digital SRL training predicted biology midterm and final exam grades, while knowledge of SRL processes did not
• Behavioral and environmental regulation knowledge during digital SRL training predicted biology exam performance - Behavioral and environmental regulation knowledge during digital SRL training predicted biology exam performance
• Behavioral attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention are each negatively associated with GenAI-assisted learning procrastination - Behavioral attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention are each negatively associated with GenAI-assisted learning procrastination
• Behavioral clusters recur across different student groups, which the authors attribute to shared cultural norms - Behavioral clusters recur across different student groups, which the authors attribute to shared cultural norms
• Behavioral inhibition (dCPT) performance is strongly and significantly correlated with vocabulary and receptive language outcomes in prelingually deaf children with cochlear implants - Behavioral inhibition (dCPT) performance is strongly and significantly correlated with vocabulary and receptive language outcomes in prelingually deaf children with cochlear implants
• Behavioral inhibition skills of prelingually deaf children are related to several audiological outcome measures after cochlear implantation - Behavioral inhibition skills of prelingually deaf children are related to several audiological outcome measures after cochlear implantation
• Behavioral inhibitory control tasks are useful for detecting individual differences over an average span of only 2.49 years, versus 6 years for the CBQ Inhibitory Control subscale - Behavioral inhibitory control tasks are useful for detecting individual differences over an average span of only 2.49 years, versus 6 years for the CBQ Inhibitory Control subscale
• Behavioral intention has a statistically significant but weak positive effect on actual MALL usage behavior in EFL learning - Behavioral intention has a statistically significant but weak positive effect on actual MALL usage behavior in EFL learning
• Behavioral intention translates only weakly into self-reported use behavior, and the extended UTAUT model explains intention formation better than enactment - Behavioral intention translates only weakly into self-reported use behavior, and the extended UTAUT model explains intention formation better than enactment
• Behavioral interaction metrics are weakly or inconsistently correlated with task performance in AI-assisted programming - Behavioral interaction metrics are weakly or inconsistently correlated with task performance in AI-assisted programming
• Behavioral nonsymbolic numerosity acuity (RT and accuracy ratio effects) does not reliably predict formal math achievement in typical to high-achieving participants aged 6 to 34 - Behavioral nonsymbolic numerosity acuity (RT and accuracy ratio effects) does not reliably predict formal math achievement in typical to high-achieving participants aged 6 to 34
• Behavioral outcomes, especially performance and engagement, dominate the learning outcomes linked to AI-supported lecturer decisions - Behavioral outcomes, especially performance and engagement, dominate the learning outcomes linked to AI-supported lecturer decisions
• Behavioral patterns alone insufficiently predict AI-TPACK capacity because Cluster 3 is polarized between expert-level and surface-level integration - Behavioral patterns alone insufficiently predict AI-TPACK capacity because Cluster 3 is polarized between expert-level and surface-level integration
• Behavioral patterns evolve over time: Construction dominates learners' first models while Exploration becomes more frequent in later models - Behavioral patterns evolve over time: Construction dominates learners' first models while Exploration becomes more frequent in later models
• Behavioral performance on the toddler Oddball task is uncorrelated with target P3 amplitudes and latencies - Behavioral performance on the toddler Oddball task is uncorrelated with target P3 amplitudes and latencies
• Behavioral profiles alone can identify dysgraphia cases with deficits selectively affecting orthographic long-term memory or working memory - Behavioral profiles alone can identify dysgraphia cases with deficits selectively affecting orthographic long-term memory or working memory
• Behavioral ratio sensitivity for reaction time increases with age, with adults showing greater RT ratio sensitivity than children - Behavioral ratio sensitivity for reaction time increases with age, with adults showing greater RT ratio sensitivity than children
• Behavioral Relaxation Training is rated more acceptable than medication for GAD comorbid with Parkinson's disease by both younger and older adults - Behavioral Relaxation Training is rated more acceptable than medication for GAD comorbid with Parkinson's disease by both younger and older adults
• Behavioral science research shows accountability comes in many forms that activate different mechanisms - Behavioral science research shows accountability comes in many forms that activate different mechanisms
• Behavioral self-regulation development between ages three and seven is best described by an exponential (nonlinear) growth curve - Behavioral self-regulation development between ages three and seven is best described by an exponential (nonlinear) growth curve
• Behavioral similarity between LLMs and learners does not guarantee mechanistic similarity - Behavioral similarity between LLMs and learners does not guarantee mechanistic similarity
• Behavioral skills training produced near-complete skill mastery of lockdown steps among young students, per studies the brief summarizes - Behavioral skills training produced near-complete skill mastery of lockdown steps among young students, per studies the brief summarizes
• Behavioral trends across three tasks showed high CT students maintained stable independent coding while low CT students' AICA use fluctuated - Behavioral trends across three tasks showed high CT students maintained stable independent coding while low CT students' AICA use fluctuated
• Behavioral-only metrics from an instrumented online textbook support early prediction of final course grades in flipped statistics courses - Behavioral-only metrics from an instrumented online textbook support early prediction of final course grades in flipped statistics courses
• Behaviorism was explicitly a theory of society, articulated in opposition to eugenics - Behaviorism was explicitly a theory of society, articulated in opposition to eugenics
• Behavioural analytics alone cannot distinguish the cognitive origins of identical learner errors - Behavioural analytics alone cannot distinguish the cognitive origins of identical learner errors
• Behavioural engagement indicators such as platform interaction and task completion do not by themselves establish cognitive engagement with mathematical ideas - Behavioural engagement indicators such as platform interaction and task completion do not by themselves establish cognitive engagement with mathematical ideas
• Behavioural intention to use AI-based technologies does not change significantly following the INSIGHT training, despite increases in perceived usefulness and ease of use - Behavioural intention to use AI-based technologies does not change significantly following the INSIGHT training, despite increases in perceived usefulness and ease of use
• Behavioural intention to use GenAI tools significantly predicts in-service teachers' self-reported pedagogical digital competence for curriculum planning - Behavioural intention to use GenAI tools significantly predicts in-service teachers' self-reported pedagogical digital competence for curriculum planning
• Behavioural letter recognition improves more after printing than visual-only training, but not significantly - Behavioural letter recognition improves more after printing than visual-only training, but not significantly
• Behavioural, cognitive and conceptual-to-consequential subscales of the QCGE-SAS show acceptable reliability, while the social engagement subscale shows unacceptable internal consistency - Behavioural, cognitive and conceptual-to-consequential subscales of the QCGE-SAS show acceptable reliability, while the social engagement subscale shows unacceptable internal consistency
• Being a teacher at a school with higher collective efficacy in classroom management is associated with higher self-reported classroom management over and above individual self-efficacy - Being a teacher at a school with higher collective efficacy in classroom management is associated with higher self-reported classroom management over and above individual self-efficacy
• Being a year older at kindergarten entry leads to higher initial achievement - Being a year older at kindergarten entry leads to higher initial achievement
• Being admitted to a charter middle school in the National Evaluation of Charter Middle Schools did not affect students' chances of enrolling in or completing college - Being admitted to a charter middle school in the National Evaluation of Charter Middle Schools did not affect students' chances of enrolling in or completing college
• Being good role models, taking interest in students' lives outside class, and allowing students choices were the behaviours most consistently associated with positive change in engagement - Being good role models, taking interest in students' lives outside class, and allowing students choices were the behaviours most consistently associated with positive change in engagement
• Being male, Black, or Hispanic and changing schools predict lower odds of moving on-track; the reading findings are qualitatively similar - Being male, Black, or Hispanic and changing schools predict lower odds of moving on-track; the reading findings are qualitatively similar
• Being observed by a friend or an experimenter affects relational reasoning accuracy in adolescents but not in adults - Being observed by a friend or an experimenter affects relational reasoning accuracy in adolescents but not in adults
• Being offered Supplemental Instruction shows no significant effect on first-year students' mental well-being - Being offered Supplemental Instruction shows no significant effect on first-year students' mental well-being
• Being offered Supplemental Instruction shows no significant effect on sense of belonging, measured with a low-reliability scale - Being offered Supplemental Instruction shows no significant effect on sense of belonging, measured with a low-reliability scale
• Being present for a clicker question predicts a higher likelihood of providing a homework explanation demonstrating understanding, except in the lowest quartile - Being present for a clicker question predicts a higher likelihood of providing a homework explanation demonstrating understanding, except in the lowest quartile
• Belief factors are positively intercorrelated: a social-dynamic view of mathematics co-occurs with higher task value and confidence (r = .48) and more positive teacher beliefs (r = .41) - Belief factors are positively intercorrelated: a social-dynamic view of mathematics co-occurs with higher task value and confidence (r = .48) and more positive teacher beliefs (r = .41)
• Belief in learning styles remains near-universal among educators, with pre-service teachers believing more than qualified teachers - Belief in learning styles remains near-universal among educators, with pre-service teachers believing more than qualified teachers
• Belief that a global environmental problem needs addressing was already high before the workshop and did not significantly change - Belief that a global environmental problem needs addressing was already high before the workshop and did not significantly change
• Beliefs about action and willpower, shaped by discussion, causally alter behaviour such as cheating and persistence - Beliefs about action and willpower, shaped by discussion, causally alter behaviour such as cheating and persistence
• Belonging correlates with self-efficacy and shows small-to-moderate correlations with secondary students' achievement - Belonging correlates with self-efficacy and shows small-to-moderate correlations with secondary students' achievement
• Belonging Interventions Improve Outcomes
• Belonging is a prerequisite for effective collaborative learning, not merely a positive outcome - Belonging is a prerequisite for effective collaborative learning, not merely a positive outcome
• Belonging is multi-faceted and context-dependent, with different expressions (group membership, momentary feeling, durable sense) often conflated in research - Belonging is multi-faceted and context-dependent, with different expressions (group membership, momentary feeling, durable sense) often conflated in research
• Belonging may be more predictive of students' classroom participation and learning behavior than self-efficacy - Belonging may be more predictive of students' classroom participation and learning behavior than self-efficacy
• Belonging measures were typically validated on small, primarily White and middle-class samples without testing factor-structure differences by demographics - Belonging measures were typically validated on small, primarily White and middle-class samples without testing factor-structure differences by demographics
• Belonging mediates the relationship between racial/ethnic identity and both academic achievement and emotional symptoms - Belonging mediates the relationship between racial/ethnic identity and both academic achievement and emotional symptoms
• Belonging uncertainty — the instability of a student's sense of belonging — is distinct from overall belonging level and predicts risk of negative outcomes - Belonging uncertainty — the instability of a student's sense of belonging — is distinct from overall belonging level and predicts risk of negative outcomes
• Belonging, task relevance, and individual mindset together predict classroom self-efficacy, with belonging the strongest predictor - Belonging, task relevance, and individual mindset together predict classroom self-efficacy, with belonging the strongest predictor
• Belonging-related theories are underutilized in educational practice, partly because translating theoretical concepts into implementable strategies is difficult - Belonging-related theories are underutilized in educational practice, partly because translating theoretical concepts into implementable strategies is difficult
• Belongingness is among the factors that most strongly and reliably affect learners' academic motivation and achievement - Belongingness is among the factors that most strongly and reliably affect learners' academic motivation and achievement
• Belongingness is more strongly associated with academic achievement among marginalized students than among white students - Belongingness is more strongly associated with academic achievement among marginalized students than among white students
• Below Basic adults read far fewer words per minute than higher-level readers, with 49% reading at 60 wcpm or slower - Below Basic adults read far fewer words per minute than higher-level readers, with 49% reading at 60 wcpm or slower
• Below-chance direction of effect judgments with decimals below one are not attributable to weak decimal computation skill - Below-chance direction of effect judgments with decimals below one are not attributable to weak decimal computation skill
• Below-norm students' algebra test scores improved despite having lower-skill peers post-policy, consistent with additional supports offsetting compositional decline - Below-norm students' algebra test scores improved despite having lower-skill peers post-policy, consistent with additional supports offsetting compositional decline
• Below-norm students' pass rates improved post-policy because their skills relative to classroom peers improved under sorting - Below-norm students' pass rates improved post-policy because their skills relative to classroom peers improved under sorting
• Below-norm students' test scores improved post-policy (0.88 points total), and the relationship between classroom average ability and their scores was no longer statistically significant post-policy - Below-norm students' test scores improved post-policy (0.88 points total), and the relationship between classroom average ability and their scores was no longer statistically significant post-policy
• Benchmark success on human-designed assessments may not establish that the underlying abilities are being measured - Benchmark success on human-designed assessments may not establish that the underlying abilities are being measured
• Benchmarking shows NLP-based automated essay scoring achieves grading times up to 80% faster than human graders while maintaining comparable accuracy - Benchmarking shows NLP-based automated essay scoring achieves grading times up to 80% faster than human graders while maintaining comparable accuracy
• Benchmarks are sensitive to precision and publication bias, but subgroup ordering remains stable and one-per-primary-study quartiles are broadly similar to raw values - Benchmarks are sensitive to precision and publication bias, but subgroup ordering remains stable and one-per-primary-study quartiles are broadly similar to raw values
• Beneficial effects of pedagogical agents are attributed primarily to the agent's voice rather than its visual presence - Beneficial effects of pedagogical agents are attributed primarily to the agent's voice rather than its visual presence
• Benefits of CCSPP community schools were largest for Black students, English learners, and socioeconomically disadvantaged students - Benefits of CCSPP community schools were largest for Black students, English learners, and socioeconomically disadvantaged students
• Benefits of expert example standards depend on example quality: largest for incorrect examples, absent for correct ones - Benefits of expert example standards depend on example quality: largest for incorrect examples, absent for correct ones
• Benefits of learning with more than two external representations primarily depend on the provision of appropriate instructional support. - Benefits of learning with more than two external representations primarily depend on the provision of appropriate instructional support.
• Benefits of morphology instruction show little evidence of retention at follow-up, though follow-up data were sparse - Benefits of morphology instruction show little evidence of retention at follow-up, though follow-up data were sparse
• Benefits of retrieval practice have persisted for 6 months in medical students and 9 months in middle-school students - Benefits of retrieval practice have persisted for 6 months in medical students and 9 months in middle-school students
• Bengali's alphasyllabary script incurs a tokenization penalty: elevated token fertility fragments linguistic units and compounds the training data deficit - Bengali's alphasyllabary script incurs a tokenization penalty: elevated token fertility fragments linguistic units and compounds the training data deficit
• Bernoulli Mixture Model fits select around 10-12 clusters per question, with no runs finding high cluster counts optimal, indicating specialised skill sets do not generally exist - Bernoulli Mixture Model fits select around 10-12 clusters per question, with no runs finding high cluster counts optimal, indicating specialised skill sets do not generally exist
• BERT and MentalBERT remain resilient under sentence shuffling in ENS-based mental health classification - BERT and MentalBERT remain resilient under sentence shuffling in ENS-based mental health classification
• BERT was the best unimodal text classifier for Key Stage classification with an F1 score of 0.75 - BERT was the best unimodal text classifier for Key Stage classification with an F1 score of 0.75
• BERTopic analysis of 1,048 AIOL publications identifies research themes including adaptive learning systems, sentiment analysis, and predictive analytics - BERTopic analysis of 1,048 AIOL publications identifies research themes including adaptive learning systems, sentiment analysis, and predictive analytics
• Best and poorest drill pupils both gained more than their non-drill counterparts, narrowing the within-class gap - Best and poorest drill pupils both gained more than their non-drill counterparts, narrowing the within-class gap
• Best leverage points for improving performance lie in teacher strategies for classroom context, mindsets, and learning strategies - Best leverage points for improving performance lie in teacher strategies for classroom context, mindsets, and learning strategies
• Better adult writers show slightly greater temporal regularity in handwriting strokes, with the total stroke period showing the least variability - Better adult writers show slightly greater temporal regularity in handwriting strokes, with the total stroke period showing the least variability
• Better awareness calibration co-occurs with lower incorrect-advice acceptance and lower attribution bias, interpreted associationally only - Better awareness calibration co-occurs with lower incorrect-advice acceptance and lower attribution bias, interpreted associationally only
• Better calibration (lower Absolute Accuracy Index) is associated with higher Word Reading and Composite achievement scores - Better calibration (lower Absolute Accuracy Index) is associated with higher Word Reading and Composite achievement scores
• Better coordination, communication, and coherence across professional learning and supports are needed to sustain centering student experience - Better coordination, communication, and coherence across professional learning and supports are needed to sustain centering student experience
• Better emotional scaffolding is associated with higher ECERS-R Interaction scores - Better emotional scaffolding is associated with higher ECERS-R Interaction scores
• Better inhibition skills in kindergarten predict less overconfident metacognitive monitoring in 2nd grade, explaining 11% of variance - Better inhibition skills in kindergarten predict less overconfident metacognitive monitoring in 2nd grade, explaining 11% of variance
• Better metacognitive awareness of trial-to-trial VSTM performance is associated with lower error, higher precision, and fewer misbinding errors, but not with item capacity, and this association is invariant across age - Better metacognitive awareness of trial-to-trial VSTM performance is associated with lower error, higher precision, and fewer misbinding errors, but not with item capacity, and this association is inv
• Better metacognitive monitoring and control at the start of the year are correlated with lower boredom and anxiety about English at year's end - Better metacognitive monitoring and control at the start of the year are correlated with lower boredom and anxiety about English at year's end
• Better mid-year decoding performance positively predicts end-of-year harm avoidance symptoms - Better mid-year decoding performance positively predicts end-of-year harm avoidance symptoms
• Better mid-year oral reading fluency predicts lower separation anxiety symptoms at end of first grade - Better mid-year oral reading fluency predicts lower separation anxiety symptoms at end of first grade
• Better note quality and quantity relate to better memory, verbatim overlap relates negatively, and noted propositions are far more likely to be recalled - Better note quality and quantity relate to better memory, verbatim overlap relates negatively, and noted propositions are far more likely to be recalled
• Better resolution on the laboratory phishing task predicts lower odds of malicious files on participants' home computers - Better resolution on the laboratory phishing task predicts lower odds of malicious files on participants' home computers
• Better response inhibition (complex No-Go accuracy) is associated with longer reaction times on counterintuitive misconception trials, not better performance - Better response inhibition (complex No-Go accuracy) is associated with longer reaction times on counterintuitive misconception trials, not better performance
• Better semantic inhibition (smaller Stroop RT cost) is associated with higher accuracy on counterintuitive science and maths misconception trials - Better semantic inhibition (smaller Stroop RT cost) is associated with higher accuracy on counterintuitive science and maths misconception trials
• Better visual perception and motor coordination uniquely predict better reading skills in school-aged children with and without ADHD, controlling for IQ and ADHD symptoms - Better visual perception and motor coordination uniquely predict better reading skills in school-aged children with and without ADHD, controlling for IQ and ADHD symptoms
• Better writers and older children anticipate the rhythmic beat while poorer writers and young children lag behind it; the arm is less accurate than the fingers except for younger children - Better writers and older children anticipate the rhythmic beat while poorer writers and young children lag behind it; the arm is less accurate than the fingers except for younger children
• Better-educated adults scored higher on WAIS vocabulary, produced longer utterances, and used more right-branching clauses - Better-educated adults scored higher on WAIS vocabulary, produced longer utterances, and used more right-branching clauses
• Between 10% and 21% of students experienced significant declines in expectancy, intrinsic value, and utility value during the first half of the semester - Between 10% and 21% of students experienced significant declines in expectancy, intrinsic value, and utility value during the first half of the semester
• Between 1991 and 1994, elementary teachers' test-preparation time increased and responses converged toward moderate agreement on reform items - Between 1991 and 1994, elementary teachers' test-preparation time increased and responses converged toward moderate agreement on reform items
• Between 2014 and 2018, most states did not significantly change their content standards while districts increasingly provided standards-aligned supports - Between 2014 and 2018, most states did not significantly change their content standards while districts increasingly provided standards-aligned supports
• Between 2020–21 and 2021–22, 15.1% of U.S. public school teachers moved schools or left the profession, and turnover is now about 20% higher than in 1992 - Between 2020–21 and 2021–22, 15.1% of U.S.
• Between 70 and 80 percent of schools reported decreased learning time in spring 2020, with one in five reporting significant decreases in ELA and math - Between 70 and 80 percent of schools reported decreased learning time in spring 2020, with one in five reporting significant decreases in ELA and math
• Between February 2019 and January 2021, legislative initiatives requiring ethnic studies in K-12 standards or curricula were identified in 19 states and the District of Columbia - Between February 2019 and January 2021, legislative initiatives requiring ethnic studies in K-12 standards or curricula were identified in 19 states and the District of Columbia
• Between groups, the intervention showed a moderate inhibitory-control advantage at 4 weeks (p = .052) and a large advantage at 4 months (η2 = .135), with a significant main effect of time for both groups - Between groups, the intervention showed a moderate inhibitory-control advantage at 4 weeks (p = .052) and a large advantage at 4 months (η2 = .135), with a significant main effect of time for both gro
• Between persons, trait mastery goals positively predict enjoyment and negatively predict anger and boredom; performance-approach goals predict pride; performance-avoidance goals predict anxiety and shame - Between persons, trait mastery goals positively predict enjoyment and negatively predict anger and boredom; performance-approach goals predict pride; performance-avoidance goals predict anxiety and sh
• Between schools, principal leadership has small positive indirect relationships with test-score gains and GPA through the learning climate and classroom instruction - Between schools, principal leadership has small positive indirect relationships with test-score gains and GPA through the learning climate and classroom instruction
• Between- or within-class homogeneous ability grouping has a small negative effect on low-ability primary students but no effect on other students - Between- or within-class homogeneous ability grouping has a small negative effect on low-ability primary students but no effect on other students
• Between-center differences in preschool cognitive and SEL outcomes were mostly small in the United States but more pronounced in Germany and the United Kingdom - Between-center differences in preschool cognitive and SEL outcomes were mostly small in the United States but more pronounced in Germany and the United Kingdom
• Between-class accuracy differences were not correlated with performance on listening comprehension tests - Between-class accuracy differences were not correlated with performance on listening comprehension tests
• Between-class differences in structural accuracy were attributed, with some evidence, to differences in teachers' form-focused instruction - Between-class differences in structural accuracy were attributed, with some evidence, to differences in teachers' form-focused instruction
• Between-conversation persona stability is intensity-dependent: high-intensity ADHD personas cluster tightly while moderate-intensity personas show the highest aggregate variability - Between-conversation persona stability is intensity-dependent: high-intensity ADHD personas cluster tightly while moderate-intensity personas show the highest aggregate variability
• Between-group effect sizes on decision-making gains were large for AI-assisted versus traditional instruction and moderate-to-large for AI-assisted versus inquiry-only - Between-group effect sizes on decision-making gains were large for AI-assisted versus traditional instruction and moderate-to-large for AI-assisted versus inquiry-only
• Between-student differences explain a large fraction of CASED label variance, limiting what any clip-level visual model can learn - Between-student differences explain a large fraction of CASED label variance, limiting what any clip-level visual model can learn
• Between-term score correlations are moderate and lowest for Phonological Awareness - Between-term score correlations are moderate and lowest for Phonological Awareness
• Betweenness centrality decreases as working memory capacity increases - Betweenness centrality decreases as working memory capacity increases
• Betweenness centrality shows the least consistent correlation with performance, being largely insignificant or negative across configurations except in one course - Betweenness centrality shows the least consistent correlation with performance, being largely insignificant or negative across configurations except in one course
• Beyond the hypothesized links, mastery goals also predicted pride, performance-approach goals predicted enjoyment and (weakly) shame, and performance-avoidance goals predicted anger - Beyond the hypothesized links, mastery goals also predicted pride, performance-approach goals predicted enjoyment and (weakly) shame, and performance-avoidance goals predicted anger
• BFLPE is stronger on the regular class level and strongest on the domain-specific math class level - BFLPE is stronger on the regular class level and strongest on the domain-specific math class level
• BFpack handles common statistical analyses with default priors and data missing at random - BFpack handles common statistical analyses with default priors and data missing at random
• BFpack provides both Bayesian exploratory and confirmatory hypothesis testing tools with equality and order constraints - BFpack provides both Bayesian exploratory and confirmatory hypothesis testing tools with equality and order constraints
• Bias and RMSE of ability estimates are larger for on-grade item pools than for ±1-grade and all-grade pools across content areas and simulee types - Bias and RMSE of ability estimates are larger for on-grade item pools than for ±1-grade and all-grade pools across content areas and simulee types
• Bias in predicting learning productivity, measured as accuracy differences across gender and parental educational background, was highly dependent on the ML method used - Bias in predicting learning productivity, measured as accuracy differences across gender and parental educational background, was highly dependent on the ML method used
• Bias scores did not improve over the school year, but school year level mattered: year 1 students became less overconfident while year 3 students improved their underconfidence - Bias scores did not improve over the school year, but school year level mattered: year 1 students became less overconfident while year 3 students improved their underconfidence
• Bias transfer is asymmetric: prompt condition affects agency in female-target essays but not male-target essays, suppressing female agency while male writing remains stable - Bias transfer is asymmetric: prompt condition affects agency in female-target essays but not male-target essays, suppressing female agency while male writing remains stable
• Bias, not precision loss, drives the difference in proxy pre-test value-added estimates - Bias, not precision loss, drives the difference in proxy pre-test value-added estimates
• Bias-adjusted posterior-predictive benchmarks for STEM moderator effect sizes (0.18, 0.38, 0.64 at the 25th, 50th, 75th percentiles) fall below both Cohen's conventional thresholds and raw empirical quartiles - Bias-adjusted posterior-predictive benchmarks for STEM moderator effect sizes (0.18, 0.38, 0.64 at the 25th, 50th, 75th percentiles) fall below both Cohen's conventional thresholds and raw empirical q
• Biased LLM assistance increases students' gender-stereotypic occupational recommendations: 71.4% of biased-condition essays recommended a gender-stereotypic occupation versus 45.0% (control) and 39.0% (neutral) - Biased LLM assistance increases students' gender-stereotypic occupational recommendations: 71.4% of biased-condition essays recommended a gender-stereotypic occupation versus 45.0% (control) and 39.0%
• BICS and CALP intersect developmentally but are not identical or reducible one to the other - BICS and CALP intersect developmentally but are not identical or reducible one to the other
• BICS-level language can be acquired in about two years regardless of age on arrival and first language - BICS-level language can be acquired in about two years regardless of age on arrival and first language
• Bicultural identity and integration-type acculturation attitudes are most conducive to minority students' school success, with weak or inconsistent associations for ethnic identification alone - Bicultural identity and integration-type acculturation attitudes are most conducive to minority students' school success, with weak or inconsistent associations for ethnic identification alone
• Bidirectional EF–mathematics relationships are reported but the longitudinal evidence is mixed and method-dependent - Bidirectional EF–mathematics relationships are reported but the longitudinal evidence is mixed and method-dependent
• Bifactor-(S-1) models of teacher Big Five personality fit student and teacher data better than single-domain or three-facets models - Bifactor-(S-1) models of teacher Big Five personality fit student and teacher data better than single-domain or three-facets models
• Big Five personality factors show few consistent effects on metacognitive judgments in domain-specific tests - Big Five personality factors show few consistent effects on metacognitive judgments in domain-specific tests
• Bilingual 8-year-olds are more accurate than monolingual 8-year-olds on a computerized spatial perspective-taking task - Bilingual 8-year-olds are more accurate than monolingual 8-year-olds on a computerized spatial perspective-taking task
• Bilingual 8-year-olds show no switching cost between blocked and mixed trial blocks, unlike monolinguals - Bilingual 8-year-olds show no switching cost between blocked and mixed trial blocks, unlike monolinguals
• Bilingual 8-year-olds show smaller inhibitory-control costs than monolinguals on the faces task - Bilingual 8-year-olds show smaller inhibitory-control costs than monolinguals on the faces task
• Bilingual and monolingual 8-year-olds do not differ in response suppression costs - Bilingual and monolingual 8-year-olds do not differ in response suppression costs
• Bilingual children in Canada and India perform equivalently, supporting bilingualism rather than culture or immigration as the advantage's source - Bilingual children in Canada and India perform equivalently, supporting bilingualism rather than culture or immigration as the advantage's source
• Bilingual children maintain higher accuracy than monolingual children in a dual-modality classification task, with the advantage limited to the visual task - Bilingual children maintain higher accuracy than monolingual children in a dual-modality classification task, with the advantage limited to the visual task
• Bilingual children perform worse than monolinguals on attention tasks with verbal stimuli but not non-verbal ones - Bilingual children perform worse than monolinguals on attention tasks with verbal stimuli but not non-verbal ones
• Bilingual children score higher in English than Spanish, with the language effect larger in the expressive modality - Bilingual children score higher in English than Spanish, with the language effect larger in the expressive modality
• Bilingual children show a flatter pattern of attended-speech encoding across conditions, driven by weaker encoding in low- or no-interference conditions - Bilingual children show a flatter pattern of attended-speech encoding across conditions, driven by weaker encoding in low- or no-interference conditions
• Bilingual children show a general advantage in reading acquisition, especially when learning two alphabetic languages - Bilingual children show a general advantage in reading acquisition, especially when learning two alphabetic languages
• Bilingual children show faster trail-making B performance, while Indian bilinguals are faster on Trails A and monolinguals score higher on receptive vocabulary - Bilingual children show faster trail-making B performance, while Indian bilinguals are faster on Trails A and monolinguals score higher on receptive vocabulary
• Bilingual children show no reaction time cost for their dual-task accuracy advantage - Bilingual children show no reaction time cost for their dual-task accuracy advantage
• Bilingual children showed a nonsignificant advantage on the hardest theory-of-mind comprehension question, and MAIN comprehension questions may be too easy for the age range - Bilingual children showed a nonsignificant advantage on the hardest theory-of-mind comprehension question, and MAIN comprehension questions may be too easy for the age range
• Bilingual children solve the Sky Search selective attention task faster than monolinguals across the studies using it - Bilingual children solve the Sky Search selective attention task faster than monolinguals across the studies using it
• Bilingual children's English and Spanish receptive vocabulary and oral comprehension both increased across two years of Head Start, with group advantages in the language of prior exposure - Bilingual children's English and Spanish receptive vocabulary and oral comprehension both increased across two years of Head Start, with group advantages in the language of prior exposure
• Bilingual education evaluations have produced uninterpretable data by failing to model child-input by treatment interactions - Bilingual education evaluations have produced uninterpretable data by failing to model child-input by treatment interactions
• Bilingual education research identifies six characteristics of scaffolding in descriptions of language scaffolding - Bilingual education research identifies six characteristics of scaffolding in descriptions of language scaffolding
• Bilingual effect evidence appears for inhibition and cognitive flexibility but disappears for working memory in children and adolescents - Bilingual effect evidence appears for inhibition and cognitive flexibility but disappears for working memory in children and adolescents
• Bilingual instruction pairs transfer technique knowledge across languages, more strongly to Indo-Aryan (∆TF = +3.2) than Dravidian (∆TF = +1.8) languages - Bilingual instruction pairs transfer technique knowledge across languages, more strongly to Indo-Aryan (∆TF = +3.2) than Dravidian (∆TF = +1.8) languages
• Bilingual interviewees across six languages all recognized the effort–load distinction but emphasized different aspects of each construct - Bilingual interviewees across six languages all recognized the effort–load distinction but emphasized different aspects of each construct
• Bilingual language policy facilitates multilingual and multicultural pedagogical interaction in Indonesian university classrooms - Bilingual language policy facilitates multilingual and multicultural pedagogical interaction in Indonesian university classrooms
• Bilingual language policy implementation in Indonesian higher education is categorized as the preservation of local and national identity - Bilingual language policy implementation in Indonesian higher education is categorized as the preservation of local and national identity
• Bilingual mathematics classes may support acquisition of mathematical knowledge by building technical terms in two language structures - Bilingual mathematics classes may support acquisition of mathematical knowledge by building technical terms in two language structures
• Bilingual preschoolers silently reading dual-language e-books attend more to their dominant language (English) than the nondominant language (Mandarin) - Bilingual preschoolers silently reading dual-language e-books attend more to their dominant language (English) than the nondominant language (Mandarin)
• Bilingual readers showed a smaller indirect effect of MA on reading comprehension via word reading than monolinguals - Bilingual readers showed a smaller indirect effect of MA on reading comprehension via word reading than monolinguals
• Bilingual school-age children's microstructure converged with monolinguals', consistent with bilinguals exceeding the ~60% input benchmark for typical development - Bilingual school-age children's microstructure converged with monolinguals', consistent with bilinguals exceeding the ~60% input benchmark for typical development
• Bilingual staff help differentiate typical language development from disability, but interviewees described no systematic process for doing so - Bilingual staff help differentiate typical language development from disability, but interviewees described no systematic process for doing so
• Bilingual students scored significantly lower on text quality than L1 students, with L2 differences marginal for text quality and handwriting fluency - Bilingual students scored significantly lower on text quality than L1 students, with L2 differences marginal for text quality and handwriting fluency
• Bilingually educated high-school students show smaller switching costs (greater cognitive flexibility) than regularly educated peers - Bilingually educated high-school students show smaller switching costs (greater cognitive flexibility) than regularly educated peers
• Bilingually educated students show a decreased global precedence effect, indicating a more focused scope of attention - Bilingually educated students show a decreased global precedence effect, indicating a more focused scope of attention
• Bilinguals and monolinguals do not differ on basic math performance in either experiment - Bilinguals and monolinguals do not differ on basic math performance in either experiment
• Bilinguals maintain target activation longer than monolinguals after the activation peak - Bilinguals maintain target activation longer than monolinguals after the activation peak
• Bilinguals may have a specific advantage in transferring understanding of novel symbolic rules to new contexts - Bilinguals may have a specific advantage in transferring understanding of novel symbolic rules to new contexts
• Bilinguals show a marginally smaller Stroop effect and higher overall Stroop accuracy than monolinguals - Bilinguals show a marginally smaller Stroop effect and higher overall Stroop accuracy than monolinguals
• Biliterate dual language learners show higher higher order cognitive skills regardless of instructional program - Biliterate dual language learners show higher higher order cognitive skills regardless of instructional program
• Bimodal captioned input improved L2 listening skills, generalizing to unfamiliar sentences and speakers (attributed to Charles & Trenkic, 2015) - Bimodal captioned input improved L2 listening skills, generalizing to unfamiliar sentences and speakers (attributed to Charles & Trenkic, 2015)
• Binding tasks showed no separate episodic buffer faculty, loading instead with visuospatial tasks or the focus of attention - Binding tasks showed no separate episodic buffer faculty, loading instead with visuospatial tasks or the focus of attention
• Binet's norms were worked out for Paris working-class children and may need revision for other social classes and regions - Binet's norms were worked out for Paris working-class children and may need revision for other social classes and regions
• Binet-Simon intelligence tests are applicable only to European and American conditions; other tests are needed for primitive peoples - Binet-Simon intelligence tests are applicable only to European and American conditions; other tests are needed for primitive peoples
• Biologically primary motor actions such as finger tracing can provide cognitive benefits without causing cognitive load - Biologically primary motor actions such as finger tracing can provide cognitive benefits without causing cognitive load
• Biology conceptual change interventions have been conducted at all educational levels, most commonly with upper secondary students, with a median sample of 78 participants - Biology conceptual change interventions have been conducted at all educational levels, most commonly with upper secondary students, with a median sample of 78 participants
• Biology course grade partially mediates the UV intervention's effects on course continuation and STEM major persistence - Biology course grade partially mediates the UV intervention's effects on course continuation and STEM major persistence
• Biology courses alone are judged inadequate for sex instruction and should be supplemented by more personal and direct means such as special lectures. - Biology courses alone are judged inadequate for sex instruction and should be supplemented by more personal and direct means such as special lectures.
• Biomedical causal knowledge improves novice diagnostic accuracy on cases using unfamiliar terminology - Biomedical causal knowledge improves novice diagnostic accuracy on cases using unfamiliar terminology
• Biomedical causal knowledge improves novice diagnostic accuracy on difficult cases with irrelevant findings - Biomedical causal knowledge improves novice diagnostic accuracy on difficult cases with irrelevant findings
• Bioscience students who took the CLASP series had statistically significantly higher upper-division GPAs than students who took the traditional Physics 5 series - Bioscience students who took the CLASP series had statistically significantly higher upper-division GPAs than students who took the traditional Physics 5 series
• BIPOC solution providers embed culturally responsive pedagogy features in both their R&D processes and their end products - BIPOC solution providers embed culturally responsive pedagogy features in both their R&D processes and their end products
• BIPOC solution providers' motivations blend general prosociality with equity and social justice purposes - BIPOC solution providers' motivations blend general prosociality with equity and social justice purposes
• BIPOC students' math achievement in fall 2020 dropped substantially relative to pre-pandemic national norms, with the largest declines in grades 4-6 - BIPOC students' math achievement in fall 2020 dropped substantially relative to pre-pandemic national norms, with the largest declines in grades 4-6
• Birth month is a significant predictor of retention at all grades, but its connection with achievement is substantial only in the lower primary grades - Birth month is a significant predictor of retention at all grades, but its connection with achievement is substantial only in the lower primary grades
• Bisexual students in every race/ethnicity group report chronic sadness at more than twice the rate of straight students - Bisexual students in every race/ethnicity group report chronic sadness at more than twice the rate of straight students
• Bivariate correlations between social functioning and academic development are in the predicted direction but modest in strength - Bivariate correlations between social functioning and academic development are in the predicted direction but modest in strength
• Bivariate SDT-based predictions about BPNSFS correlates were largely upheld: valence predictions correct for 95.2% and content predictions for 91.4% of scored cases - Bivariate SDT-based predictions about BPNSFS correlates were largely upheld: valence predictions correct for 95.2% and content predictions for 91.4% of scored cases
• BKT estimates show most students mastered wind direction and air movement but few mastered wind speed, precipitation type, or amount - BKT estimates show most students mastered wind direction and air movement but few mastered wind speed, precipitation type, or amount
• BKT is the most efficient knowledge tracing approach overall in simulated online mastery learning, though DKT is more efficient for AS and M problems - BKT is the most efficient knowledge tracing approach overall in simulated online mastery learning, though DKT is more efficient for AS and M problems
• BKT scaffolding significantly benefits low prior knowledge students, who outperformed low prior knowledge controls - BKT scaffolding significantly benefits low prior knowledge students, who outperformed low prior knowledge controls
• BKT students completed posttest problems significantly faster than Control students, with DRL showing marginal advantages in time and solution optimality - BKT students completed posttest problems significantly faster than Control students, with DRL showing marginal advantages in time and solution optimality
• Black Americans comprise only 8% of the 5.3 million tech occupation jobs in the U.S. - Black Americans comprise only 8% of the 5.3 million tech occupation jobs in the U.S.
• Black and Hispanic students attained postsecondary readiness and success outcomes at substantially lower rates than White students - Black and Hispanic students attained postsecondary readiness and success outcomes at substantially lower rates than White students
• Black and Latino students' success in progressive mathematics triggers system reactions questioning the program's rigor - Black and Latino students' success in progressive mathematics triggers system reactions questioning the program's rigor
• Black and Latinx students generally feel less safe at school than their White peers - Black and Latinx students generally feel less safe at school than their White peers
• Black and Latinx students were less likely than their peers to be in the On-Track category, and within each race/ethnicity group boys were less likely to be on-track than girls - Black and Latinx students were less likely than their peers to be in the On-Track category, and within each race/ethnicity group boys were less likely to be on-track than girls
• Black and poor students are suspended from US schools at higher rates than White and nonpoor students - Black and poor students are suspended from US schools at higher rates than White and nonpoor students
• Black charter students outperform their Black TPS peers in reading (about 24 additional days) but both groups lag the average White TPS student substantially - Black charter students outperform their Black TPS peers in reading (about 24 additional days) but both groups lag the average White TPS student substantially
• Black girls across developmental stages reported awareness of stereotypes specific to Black girls and connected them to negative school experiences - Black girls across developmental stages reported awareness of stereotypes specific to Black girls and connected them to negative school experiences
• Black girls' awareness of difficulties navigating educational settings is coupled with parental support that promotes positive gendered racial identities - Black girls' awareness of difficulties navigating educational settings is coupled with parental support that promotes positive gendered racial identities
• Black jobseekers report biased applicant tracking systems, lengthy hiring processes, and entry-level postings requiring years of experience - Black jobseekers report biased applicant tracking systems, lengthy hiring processes, and entry-level postings requiring years of experience
• Black Parent PLUS borrowers default at disproportionately high rates compared with White parent borrowers - Black Parent PLUS borrowers default at disproportionately high rates compared with White parent borrowers
• Black secondary students lost 103 days of instruction per 100 enrolled, 82 more days than their White peers - Black secondary students lost 103 days of instruction per 100 enrolled, 82 more days than their White peers
• Black students and students from the lowest-SES neighborhoods ranked more programs but were less likely to rank a high-accountability school first - Black students and students from the lowest-SES neighborhoods ranked more programs but were less likely to rank a high-accountability school first
• Black students and students with disabilities are disproportionately referred for behavioral threat assessments - Black students and students with disabilities are disproportionately referred for behavioral threat assessments
• Black students and students with disabilities are suspended at disproportionately high rates, and high-poverty schools are more likely to have a School Resource Officer - Black students and students with disabilities are suspended at disproportionately high rates, and high-poverty schools are more likely to have a School Resource Officer
• Black students and students with disabilities in Maryland were suspended and expelled at more than twice the rates of other students - Black students and students with disabilities in Maryland were suspended and expelled at more than twice the rates of other students
• Black students are less likely than white students to attend schools offering computer science classes - Black students are less likely than white students to attend schools offering computer science classes
• Black students are suspended at the highest rate of any racial group, at 12% in 2017–18, with persistent disparities across all years analyzed - Black students are suspended at the highest rate of any racial group, at 12% in 2017–18, with persistent disparities across all years analyzed
• Black students experience a more hostile campus racial climate than other students of color in schools - Black students experience a more hostile campus racial climate than other students of color in schools
• Black students in engineering are more likely to transfer from other four-year institutions than from two-year institutions - Black students in engineering are more likely to transfer from other four-year institutions than from two-year institutions
• Black students in Houston charter and magnet schools outperformed Black students in Houston district schools in reading and math - Black students in Houston charter and magnet schools outperformed Black students in Houston district schools in reading and math
• Black students in poverty attending charter schools gain about 35 additional days of learning in reading compared to their Black TPS peers in poverty, with no math difference - Black students in poverty attending charter schools gain about 35 additional days of learning in reading compared to their Black TPS peers in poverty, with no math difference
• Black students were least likely to enroll in CS overall but most likely to enroll once school-level access to CS is accounted for - Black students were least likely to enroll in CS overall but most likely to enroll once school-level access to CS is accounted for
• Black teachers have the highest borrowing and repayment rates of all subgroups studied, with 31.4% still owing their entire balance — nearly 3 times the share of all teachers - Black teachers have the highest borrowing and repayment rates of all subgroups studied, with 31.4% still owing their entire balance — nearly 3 times the share of all teachers
• Black teachers were more likely than other teachers to have borrowed for their education and to report high stress from student loan debt - Black teachers were more likely than other teachers to have borrowed for their education and to report high stress from student loan debt
• Black TECTA participants took 7.4 more months on average to earn a CDA after orientation than white participants - Black TECTA participants took 7.4 more months on average to earn a CDA after orientation than white participants
• Black TECTA participants were 30.8% less likely than white counterparts to obtain further credentials after their initial orientation - Black TECTA participants were 30.8% less likely than white counterparts to obtain further credentials after their initial orientation
• Black transfer students are more likely to persist in engineering than non-transfer black students after controlling for credits earned, a pattern not found for students of other ethnicities - Black transfer students are more likely to persist in engineering than non-transfer black students after controlling for credits earned, a pattern not found for students of other ethnicities
• Black women and participants with intersecting identities report being overlooked, facing microaggressions, and experiencing imposter syndrome in tech spaces - Black women and participants with intersecting identities report being overlooked, facing microaggressions, and experiencing imposter syndrome in tech spaces
• Black workers and learners report awareness and exploration barriers to tech careers including limited diverse representation, limited social networks, and limited school exposure - Black workers and learners report awareness and exploration barriers to tech careers including limited diverse representation, limited social networks, and limited school exposure
• Black, AIAN, and Latinx students made 55-68% of typical math gains and 73-86% of typical reading gains during the pandemic, while Asian American students made 88-100% - Black, AIAN, and Latinx students made 55-68% of typical math gains and 73-86% of typical reading gains during the pandemic, while Asian American students made 88-100%
• Black, Hispanic, and poverty students enrolled in charter schools show stronger growth trends than the same subgroups citywide in several cities - Black, Hispanic, and poverty students enrolled in charter schools show stronger growth trends than the same subgroups citywide in several cities
• Black, Hispanic, and poverty-affected charter students grow faster than traditional public school peers but gains remain below those of white peers - Black, Hispanic, and poverty-affected charter students grow faster than traditional public school peers but gains remain below those of white peers
• Black, Hispanic/Latino/a, and Multiracial preschool children were underrepresented in higher-quality (Tier 4 and 5) programs - Black, Hispanic/Latino/a, and Multiracial preschool children were underrepresented in higher-quality (Tier 4 and 5) programs
• Black, Latino/a, Native American, English learner, and special education students are disproportionately represented among students experiencing homelessness - Black, Latino/a, Native American, English learner, and special education students are disproportionately represented among students experiencing homelessness
• Black-White achievement gaps widen during school periods and shrink during summers among kindergarten through eighth-grade students - Black-White achievement gaps widen during school periods and shrink during summers among kindergarten through eighth-grade students
• Black-White and Hispanic-White achievement gaps at kindergarten entry narrowed significantly between 2010 and 2017 in both math and reading - Black-White and Hispanic-White achievement gaps at kindergarten entry narrowed significantly between 2010 and 2017 in both math and reading
• Black/African American and Hispanic/Latino students earned fewer first-year baccalaureate units than White and Asian students in every QR placement category in both cohorts - Black/African American and Hispanic/Latino students earned fewer first-year baccalaureate units than White and Asian students in every QR placement category in both cohorts
• Black/African American and Hispanic/Latino students were overrepresented in lower QR placement categories relative to their share of the 2018 CSU entering cohort - Black/African American and Hispanic/Latino students were overrepresented in lower QR placement categories relative to their share of the 2018 CSU entering cohort
• Black–White achievement gaps widen during the school year in both rural and nonrural schools - Black–White achievement gaps widen during the school year in both rural and nonrural schools
• Blended implementation models matched to learner skill level: high-touch blended for lowest-skilled learners, online courses for more advanced students - Blended implementation models matched to learner skill level: high-touch blended for lowest-skilled learners, online courses for more advanced students
• Blended learning designs pay most affective-climate attention to motivating and mental-effort tasks while neglecting appraising and dealing with emotions - Blended learning designs pay most affective-climate attention to motivating and mental-effort tasks while neglecting appraising and dealing with emotions
• Blended Learning Improves Outcomes
• Blended teaching shifted the teacher's self-identity from facilitator to co-facilitator and co-designer with students - Blended teaching shifted the teacher's self-identity from facilitator to co-facilitator and co-designer with students
• Blending outcomes showed no statistically significant effects of DaisyQuest in the Lonigan et al. (2003) trial - Blending outcomes showed no statistically significant effects of DaisyQuest in the Lonigan et al.
• Blending-focused phonological awareness training produced statistically significant positive differences on blending outcomes in O'Connor et al. (1993) - Blending-focused phonological awareness training produced statistically significant positive differences on blending outcomes in O'Connor et al.
• BLEU-4 scored zero on all 179 mathematical-proof responses, which the authors interpret as a property of n-gram metrics rather than system failure - BLEU-4 scored zero on all 179 mathematical-proof responses, which the authors interpret as a property of n-gram metrics rather than system failure
• Blind and seeing high-school pupils show about the same sensory discrimination thresholds across six touch, hearing, and kinaesthetic measures - Blind and seeing high-school pupils show about the same sensory discrimination thresholds across six touch, hearing, and kinaesthetic measures
• Blind and sighted children do not differ in performance on false-belief items of the non-visual ToM task - Blind and sighted children do not differ in performance on false-belief items of the non-visual ToM task
• Blind children reason about visually sourced mental states similarly to sighted children - Blind children reason about visually sourced mental states similarly to sighted children
• Blind expert raters judged VeriForge passages as conveying stronger perceived authorial domain competence, with other quality dimensions showing uncorrected trends - Blind expert raters judged VeriForge passages as conveying stronger perceived authorial domain competence, with other quality dimensions showing uncorrected trends
• Blind expert verification shows no overall preference for human over LLM qualitative coding when sources are judged symmetrically - Blind expert verification shows no overall preference for human over LLM qualitative coding when sources are judged symmetrically
• Blinded board-certified clinicians prefer the RL-trained agent in 87.6% of side-by-side comparisons for overall clinical impression - Blinded board-certified clinicians prefer the RL-trained agent in 87.6% of side-by-side comparisons for overall clinical impression
• Blinded expert annotators misclassified 83.7% of LLM-generated errors as human-written - Blinded expert annotators misclassified 83.7% of LLM-generated errors as human-written
• Blinded panel ratings of design presentations did not differ significantly between GenARch and Control teams - Blinded panel ratings of design presentations did not differ significantly between GenARch and Control teams
• Blinded review identified 68% of ChatGPT-generated abstracts as chatbot-produced while 14% of authentic abstracts were misclassified as chatbot-generated - Blinded review identified 68% of ChatGPT-generated abstracts as chatbot-produced while 14% of authentic abstracts were misclassified as chatbot-generated
• Block Play Predicts Math Achievement
• Blocked-format span declines after age 20 but mixed-format span does not, implicating proactive interference in aging declines - Blocked-format span declines after age 20 but mixed-format span does not, implicating proactive interference in aging declines
• Blocking factors of CS 1 and CS 2 differ significantly across women-representation groups, with lower-blocking programs having higher representation of women - Blocking factors of CS 1 and CS 2 differ significantly across women-representation groups, with lower-blocking programs having higher representation of women
• Blueprint Math Fellows tutoring raised middle school students' math test scores by 0.12 standard deviations relative to nonparticipant peers - Blueprint Math Fellows tutoring raised middle school students' math test scores by 0.12 standard deviations relative to nonparticipant peers
• BNT scores differ by word-reading level, with fifth-grade-level readers outperforming third-grade-level readers - BNT scores differ by word-reading level, with fifth-grade-level readers outperforming third-grade-level readers
• Board-certified teachers were twice as likely as other teachers to hold school leadership roles, and about two-thirds led professional development - Board-certified teachers were twice as likely as other teachers to hold school leadership roles, and about two-thirds led professional development
• Bodily health and activity make for a normal and happy emotional life, supported by serviceable physical outlets - Bodily health and activity make for a normal and happy emotional life, supported by serviceable physical outlets
• Body movements and positions focusing on virtual objects, and shifts away from or around them, signal key interactional collaborative events in shared VR - Body movements and positions focusing on virtual objects, and shifts away from or around them, signal key interactional collaborative events in shared VR
• Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons show no significant generation-versus-baseline differences at any test point for Knowledge scores - Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons show no significant generation-versus-baseline differences at any test point for Knowledge scores
• Book exposure predicts letter knowledge (about 6% of variance), consistent with meta-analytic evidence that print-related skills improve even from story-content-focused reading - Book exposure predicts letter knowledge (about 6% of variance), consistent with meta-analytic evidence that print-related skills improve even from story-content-focused reading
• Book-cover recognition predicts vocabulary and letter knowledge even after controlling for intelligence and cognitive control - Book-cover recognition predicts vocabulary and letter knowledge even after controlling for intelligence and cognitive control
• Book-sharing interventions produce a large improvement in caregiver book-sharing competence (d=1.01) - Book-sharing interventions produce a large improvement in caregiver book-sharing competence (d=1.01)
• Books are judged of little advantage for sex instruction in the earlier stages because they lack the personal touch and may serve as an excuse for omitting personal talk. - Books are judged of little advantage for sex instruction in the earlier stages because they lack the personal touch and may serve as an excuse for omitting personal talk.
• Boosting models (XGBoost) achieved the highest predictive accuracy among the compared ML models, while logistic regression showed the lowest - Boosting models (XGBoost) achieved the highest predictive accuracy among the compared ML models, while logistic regression showed the lowest
• Bootstrap stability of LoRA gains is not uniform: the ROUGE-1 confidence interval crossed zero at 7B-r4, so that increase is a trend rather than a stable improvement - Bootstrap stability of LoRA gains is not uniform: the ROUGE-1 confidence interval crossed zero at 7B-r4, so that increase is a trend rather than a stable improvement
• Boredom and academic interest fit two separate correlated factors better than one common factor in mathematics and German at every wave - Boredom and academic interest fit two separate correlated factors better than one common factor in mathematics and German at every wave
• Boredom during learning shows a significant association with facial action unit 43 (eye closure), but no association rules between action units - Boredom during learning shows a significant association with facial action unit 43 (eye closure), but no association rules between action units
• Boredom is the only achievement emotion predicting English vocabulary growth in primary school L2 learners; enjoyment and anxiety show no significant effect - Boredom is the only achievement emotion predicting English vocabulary growth in primary school L2 learners; enjoyment and anxiety show no significant effect
• Borrowing decisions with the fewest fees occur for middle-aged adults, peaking around age 53, even after controlling for credit risk, home value, and income - Borrowing decisions with the fewest fees occur for middle-aged adults, peaking around age 53, even after controlling for credit risk, home value, and income
• Boston's Focus on High Schools initiative was associated with reductions in student math and English scores after implementation - Boston's Focus on High Schools initiative was associated with reductions in student math and English scores after implementation
• Both a predominantly computational-strategy task and a retrieval-expected task show most support for the computational efficiency model of multiplication difficulty. - Both a predominantly computational-strategy task and a retrieval-expected task show most support for the computational efficiency model of multiplication difficulty.
• Both a scripted direct-instruction program and a more flexible small-group first-grade intervention outperformed typical practice on multiple reading indicators - Both a scripted direct-instruction program and a more flexible small-group first-grade intervention outperformed typical practice on multiple reading indicators
• Both a VR application and a traditional lesson increased students' self-appraised knowledge about the Amazon rainforest and biodiversity - Both a VR application and a traditional lesson increased students' self-appraised knowledge about the Amazon rainforest and biodiversity
• Both academic self-efficacy and AI self-efficacy are negatively associated with reported AI dependency, supporting a unified compensatory mechanism - Both academic self-efficacy and AI self-efficacy are negatively associated with reported AI dependency, supporting a unified compensatory mechanism
• Both adaptable and non-adaptable collaboration scripts decreased student planning, while planning increased in the non-scripted condition - Both adaptable and non-adaptable collaboration scripts decreased student planning, while planning increased in the non-scripted condition
• Both ADHD subtypes show equally pronounced motivational deficits that impair visuospatial STM and WM performance - Both ADHD subtypes show equally pronounced motivational deficits that impair visuospatial STM and WM performance
• Both agent-based model and visualization video conditions produce comparable gains in declarative nanoscience knowledge, with no Group × Time interaction - Both agent-based model and visualization video conditions produce comparable gains in declarative nanoscience knowledge, with no Group × Time interaction
• Both AI and human tutoring produce larger GRE learning gains than a no-tutoring control - Both AI and human tutoring produce larger GRE learning gains than a no-tutoring control
• Both AI platforms received their lowest expert ratings in engineering skills, indicating a shared limitation in supporting iterative design competencies - Both AI platforms received their lowest expert ratings in engineering skills, indicating a shared limitation in supporting iterative design competencies
• Both autonomy support and structure elevate students' motivation, engagement, and need satisfaction with moderate to large effect sizes - Both autonomy support and structure elevate students' motivation, engagement, and need satisfaction with moderate to large effect sizes
• Both case-based and model-based interventions increase pre-service teachers' self-reported use of theory-based knowledge when analysing classroom situations - Both case-based and model-based interventions increase pre-service teachers' self-reported use of theory-based knowledge when analysing classroom situations
• Both CF-only and KG-only ablated variants underperform the full CF–KG model, indicating complementary behavioral and semantic signals - Both CF-only and KG-only ablated variants underperform the full CF–KG model, indicating complementary behavioral and semantic signals
• Both ChatGPT feedback and peer feedback prompted doctoral students to actively exercise hard evaluative judgement in statistical analysis, through different challenges - Both ChatGPT feedback and peer feedback prompted doctoral students to actively exercise hard evaluative judgement in statistical analysis, through different challenges
• Both classes improved significantly on the science practices test, with no significant teacher main effect or teacher-by-time interaction - Both classes improved significantly on the science practices test, with no significant teacher main effect or teacher-by-time interaction
• Both cognitive domains showed significant growth, negative self-feedback, and substantial individual differences in change over the interval - Both cognitive domains showed significant growth, negative self-feedback, and substantial individual differences in change over the interval
• Both cognitive offloading and the transient information effect reduce extraneous cognitive load by making information more accessible or less transient - Both cognitive offloading and the transient information effect reduce extraneous cognitive load by making information more accessible or less transient
• Both cognitive vigilance and cognitive offloading mediate the relationship between pedagogical partnership and transformative learning - Both cognitive vigilance and cognitive offloading mediate the relationship between pedagogical partnership and transformative learning
• Both conditions improved in overall idea units, evidence-based units and functional units, with no significant condition-by-time differences - Both conditions improved in overall idea units, evidence-based units and functional units, with no significant condition-by-time differences
• Both constructive-conflict conditions produced substantially more idea editing between design iterations than unsupported self-reflection - Both constructive-conflict conditions produced substantially more idea editing between design iterations than unsupported self-reflection
• Both course sections show the same team-over-individual RAT trend despite a significant difference in scores between the sections - Both course sections show the same team-over-individual RAT trend despite a significant difference in scores between the sections
• Both detectors achieved substantially lower accuracy on scientific writing than on humanities texts - Both detectors achieved substantially lower accuracy on scientific writing than on humanities texts
• Both detectors performed poorly on hybrid human–AI texts, with Originality showing near-zero recall for the Hybrid class - Both detectors performed poorly on hybrid human–AI texts, with Originality showing near-zero recall for the Hybrid class
• Both directed multisensory and silent visual spelling methods produced large improvement from baseline after 40 minutes of practice spread over four days - Both directed multisensory and silent visual spelling methods produced large improvement from baseline after 40 minutes of practice spread over four days
• Both effects are claimed to rely on equivalent changes in element interactivity, with the changes induced by different factors - Both effects are claimed to rely on equivalent changes in element interactivity, with the changes induced by different factors
• Both errorful learning methods (self- and other-generated invalid designs) improve near transfer of experimental design principles more than errorless practice, and self-generated deliberate errors yield the best near transfer - Both errorful learning methods (self- and other-generated invalid designs) improve near transfer of experimental design principles more than errorless practice, and self-generated deliberate errors yi
• Both errorful learning methods improve design critique (understanding the indeterminacy of invalid experiments) equally, outperforming errorless practice - Both errorful learning methods improve design critique (understanding the indeterminacy of invalid experiments) equally, outperforming errorless practice
• Both errorful learning methods produce better negative knowledge (anticipation of problem-specific design errors) than errorless practice, with no difference between self- and other-generated errors - Both errorful learning methods produce better negative knowledge (anticipation of problem-specific design errors) than errorless practice, with no difference between self- and other-generated errors
• Both expert and negative example standards increase perceived mental effort during example evaluation, and negative standards increase perceived task difficulty - Both expert and negative example standards increase perceived mental effort during example evaluation, and negative standards increase perceived task difficulty
• Both fathers' initial engagement level and positive growth in engagement positively predict children's behavioral self-control - Both fathers' initial engagement level and positive growth in engagement positively predict children's behavioral self-control
• Both fine-tuned models show regression toward the mean in score-wise bias, and error rises monotonically above score 3.0, with high scores hardest to predict - Both fine-tuned models show regression toward the mean in score-wise bias, and error rises monotonically above score 3.0, with high scores hardest to predict
• Both flipped and AI-enhanced flipped classrooms achieve higher in-class question accuracy than the traditional classroom - Both flipped and AI-enhanced flipped classrooms achieve higher in-class question accuracy than the traditional classroom
• Both functional and existential GenAI dependence are positively associated with research creativity, each with significant direct and total effects - Both functional and existential GenAI dependence are positively associated with research creativity, each with significant direct and total effects
• Both genders improve in recognising AI's role in entertainment platforms after the workshop, with females additionally gaining in identifying TikTok - Both genders improve in recognising AI's role in entertainment platforms after the workshop, with females additionally gaining in identifying TikTok
• Both general and personalized SRL interventions increased students' participation in chat-based collaborative activities compared to control - Both general and personalized SRL interventions increased students' participation in chat-based collaborative activities compared to control
• Both gesture and picture enrichment enhanced children's test performance compared with non-enriched learning, with benefits persisting up to 6 months for concrete and abstract words - Both gesture and picture enrichment enhanced children's test performance compared with non-enriched learning, with benefits persisting up to 6 months for concrete and abstract words
• Both GLA groups showed a large, significant increase in pipetting self-efficacy, with no difference between conditions - Both GLA groups showed a large, significant increase in pipetting self-efficacy, with no difference between conditions