Claims: R 1

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• Race is influential but not determinative in school change: it slows and complicates reform without dictating outcomes - Race is influential but not determinative in school change: it slows and complicates reform without dictating outcomes
• Race is more strongly associated with preschool chronic absenteeism than neighborhood poverty; African American students are about twice as likely to be chronically absent - Race is more strongly associated with preschool chronic absenteeism than neighborhood poverty; African American students are about twice as likely to be chronically absent
• Race prompts elicit culturally stereotyped feedback: Black, Hispanic, and Asian students are positioned through cultural or linguistic stereotypes while White students receive argument-structure feedback - Race prompts elicit culturally stereotyped feedback: Black, Hispanic, and Asian students are positioned through cultural or linguistic stereotypes while White students receive argument-structure feedb
• Race, ethnicity, and class affect teacher perceptions and teacher behavior, including persistence with struggling students - Race, ethnicity, and class affect teacher perceptions and teacher behavior, including persistence with struggling students
• Race-by-gender disparities are more pronounced: Black boys lost 132 days per 100 enrolled and Black girls lost 77, seven times the rate of White girls - Race-by-gender disparities are more pronounced: Black boys lost 132 days per 100 enrolled and Black girls lost 77, seven times the rate of White girls
• Race-reimaging ultimately transforms a race-less construct into a race-focused construct - Race-reimaging ultimately transforms a race-less construct into a race-focused construct
• Race-specific value-added scores predict teachers' subsequent effects: Black students taught by a teacher with high prior effectiveness for Black students show gains of about one standard deviation when the teacher moves schools or grades - Race-specific value-added scores predict teachers' subsequent effects: Black students taught by a teacher with high prior effectiveness for Black students show gains of about one standard deviation wh
• RACES configurations improve QWK essay-scoring agreement over evaluated pretrained baselines on ASAP 2.0, with LLaMA2-7B-based configurations slightly outperforming Qwen2.5-Instruct-7B-based ones - RACES configurations improve QWK essay-scoring agreement over evaluated pretrained baselines on ASAP 2.0, with LLaMA2-7B-based configurations slightly outperforming Qwen2.5-Instruct-7B-based ones
• Racial achievement gaps in Chicago increased in all three eras, with African American students falling behind all other groups, especially in Era 3 - Racial achievement gaps in Chicago increased in all three eras, with African American students falling behind all other groups, especially in Era 3
• Racial achievement gaps persist among California middle and high school students, with Asian and White students reporting higher academic achievement than African American, American Indian, and Hispanic students - Racial achievement gaps persist among California middle and high school students, with Asian and White students reporting higher academic achievement than African American, American Indian, and Hispan
• Racial centrality plays different roles across outcomes: protective against discrimination's effects on mental health but a vulnerability factor for stereotype effects on self-perceptions - Racial centrality plays different roles across outcomes: protective against discrimination's effects on mental health but a vulnerability factor for stereotype effects on self-perceptions
• Racial composition, student mobility, limited-English percentage, and low-income concentration are not independently related to reform implementation once school size is accounted for - Racial composition, student mobility, limited-English percentage, and low-income concentration are not independently related to reform implementation once school size is accounted for
• Racial differences in suspension rates reflect policies and adult biases, not differences in behavior - Racial differences in suspension rates reflect policies and adult biases, not differences in behavior
• Racial disparities in 2024-25 closure likelihood hold after accounting for enrollment declines and poverty - Racial disparities in 2024-25 closure likelihood hold after accounting for enrollment declines and poverty
• Racial disparities in TPA pass rates appear in low-performing programs but not in programs with passing rates above 90% - Racial disparities in TPA pass rates appear in low-performing programs but not in programs with passing rates above 90%
• Racial justification (merely noticing and describing racial differences) did not uniquely predict out-group stereotyping, unlike functional sorting by race - Racial justification (merely noticing and describing racial differences) did not uniquely predict out-group stereotyping, unlike functional sorting by race
• Racial, ethnic, and cultural identity development emerged as the core need for students of color beyond academic subjects - Racial, ethnic, and cultural identity development emerged as the core need for students of color beyond academic subjects
• Racial/ethnic composition of classrooms and schools shapes Black and Latine students' sense of belonging in mathematics - Racial/ethnic composition of classrooms and schools shapes Black and Latine students' sense of belonging in mathematics
• Racial/ethnic disparities observed among older students are largely already in place among kindergartners - Racial/ethnic disparities observed among older students are largely already in place among kindergartners
• Racialized emotions are a race-focused construct educational psychologists have yet to explicate in teaching and learning - Racialized emotions are a race-focused construct educational psychologists have yet to explicate in teaching and learning
• Racially diverse schools show stronger achievement for historically underserved groups and positive effects on critical thinking, intergroup relationships, and civic engagement - Racially diverse schools show stronger achievement for historically underserved groups and positive effects on critical thinking, intergroup relationships, and civic engagement
• Racially integrated learning environments have positive impacts on academic achievement for students of all races, per the research the report synthesizes - Racially integrated learning environments have positive impacts on academic achievement for students of all races, per the research the report synthesizes
• Racially marginalized faculty self-report using inclusive pedagogy at slightly but significantly higher rates than White faculty - Racially marginalized faculty self-report using inclusive pedagogy at slightly but significantly higher rates than White faculty
• Racially marginalized students are less likely to report a sense of belonging in STEM education - Racially marginalized students are less likely to report a sense of belonging in STEM education
• Racism has negative psychological implications for Black students' sense of belonging, self-identity, and academic success in schools - Racism has negative psychological implications for Black students' sense of belonging, self-identity, and academic success in schools
• Racism reported 12 years earlier (1997) shows similar but attenuated associations with subjective cognitive function compared to 2009 reports - Racism reported 12 years earlier (1997) shows similar but attenuated associations with subjective cognitive function compared to 2009 reports
• Radiographers show substantial uncertainty about how localiser radiograph direction affects radiation dose and ATCM behaviour - Radiographers show substantial uncertainty about how localiser radiograph direction affects radiation dose and ATCM behaviour
• RAE effect size increases linearly with relative age differences - RAE effect size increases linearly with relative age differences
• RAE mechanisms and generalization to female and culturally diverse contexts remain unconfirmed research needs - RAE mechanisms and generalization to female and culturally diverse contexts remain unconfirmed research needs
• RAEs are consistently prevalent across sports but with small effect sizes - RAEs are consistently prevalent across sports but with small effect sizes
• RAG prompting shows systematic leniency, over-scoring relative to teacher mean scores in all four rubric dimensions (total bias = 1.787) - RAG prompting shows systematic leniency, over-scoring relative to teacher mean scores in all four rubric dimensions (total bias = 1.787)
• RAGAS Faithfulness declines with curriculum distance from LEA's original course (0.685 to 0.499), while Answer Relevancy and Context Precision remain broadly stable across courses - RAGAS Faithfulness declines with curriculum distance from LEA's original course (0.685 to 0.499), while Answer Relevancy and Context Precision remain broadly stable across courses
• RAIL-Ed's integrative commitment holds that the absence of any pillar produces a characteristic pedagogical failure - RAIL-Ed's integrative commitment holds that the absence of any pillar produces a characteristic pedagogical failure
• Rainy day funds buffer education budgets during downturns, and the median state rainy day fund balance is projected to reach 14.4 percent of general fund expenditures by the end of fiscal year 2025 - Rainy day funds buffer education budgets during downturns, and the median state rainy day fund balance is projected to reach 14.4 percent of general fund expenditures by the end of fiscal year 2025
• Raising the answer-confidence threshold reduces the number of retained MCQs but substantially improves their quality - Raising the answer-confidence threshold reduces the number of retained MCQs but substantially improves their quality
• RALL studies raise general issues regarding robots' social behavior in learning situations - RALL studies raise general issues regarding robots' social behavior in learning situations
• RALL studies raise general issues regarding students' motivation in robot-assisted learning situations - RALL studies raise general issues regarding students' motivation in robot-assisted learning situations
• RALL studies report learning gains when social robots are used to teach vocabulary, reading skills, speaking skills, grammar, and sign language - RALL studies report learning gains when social robots are used to teach vocabulary, reading skills, speaking skills, grammar, and sign language
• Ramp task levels are ordered by difficulty: performance declines as the number of variables to set increases - Ramp task levels are ordered by difficulty: performance declines as the number of variables to set increases
• RAN correlates more strongly with arithmetic calculation tasks than with general math achievement tests - RAN correlates more strongly with arithmetic calculation tasks than with general math achievement tests
• RAN correlates more strongly with single-digit than multi-digit calculation and with fluency than accuracy outcomes - RAN correlates more strongly with single-digit than multi-digit calculation and with fluency than accuracy outcomes
• RAN explained more unique variance in reading speed than phonological measures in English, French, German and Hungarian (16.7 to 22.8%), with Finnish the exception where all proximal factors contributed low, roughly equal amounts - RAN explained more unique variance in reading speed than phonological measures in English, French, German and Hungarian (16.7 to 22.8%), with Finnish the exception where all proximal factors contribut
• RAN is significantly and substantially correlated with mathematics (r = .37) across studies - RAN is significantly and substantially correlated with mathematics (r = .37) across studies
• RAN predicts irregular word spelling in Yrs 5–6, regular word spelling in Yrs 2 and 6, and pseudoword spelling in Yr 2, varying with spelling experience - RAN predicts irregular word spelling in Yrs 5–6, regular word spelling in Yrs 2 and 6, and pseudoword spelling in Yr 2, varying with spelling experience
• RAN predicts reading deficits but not isolated writing deficits, whereas phonological awareness is worse in children with isolated writing deficits - RAN predicts reading deficits but not isolated writing deficits, whereas phonological awareness is worse in children with isolated writing deficits
• RAN stimulus type (numeric vs. non-numeric; alphanumeric vs. non-alphanumeric) largely does not moderate the RAN–mathematics correlation - RAN stimulus type (numeric vs.
• Random assignment to AI access produces a strong first stage: about 70 percent of treated students use AI, most often to explain concepts - Random assignment to AI access produces a strong first stage: about 70 percent of treated students use AI, most often to explain concepts
• Random forest achieves the highest mean test accuracy (0.9590) of all models compared for predicting exam grade categories from physiological signals - Random forest achieves the highest mean test accuracy (0.9590) of all models compared for predicting exam grade categories from physiological signals
• Random forest algorithms yielded the best classification performance in K–8 MMLA studies comparing multiple machine learning models - Random forest algorithms yielded the best classification performance in K–8 MMLA studies comparing multiple machine learning models
• Random Forest and SHAP analyses identify Gamma and Beta band power at temporal and frontal channels (T3, P3, F7, T4, T4, F8, F7) as the most critical features for EEG familiarity classification - Random Forest and SHAP analyses identify Gamma and Beta band power at temporal and frontal channels (T3, P3, F7, T4, T4, F8, F7) as the most critical features for EEG familiarity classification
• Random forest feature importance identifies EDA, ACC, and TEMP as the top three physiological predictors of exam outcomes - Random forest feature importance identifies EDA, ACC, and TEMP as the top three physiological predictors of exam outcomes
• Random Forest reaches CV F1 = 0.924 on the psychographic survey dataset, but the article presents this only as a localized exploratory pilot - Random Forest reaches CV F1 = 0.924 on the psychographic survey dataset, but the article presents this only as a localized exploratory pilot
• Random Forest using nine interpretable stylometric features detects GPT-assisted student writing with held-out ROC-AUC of 0.870 and F1 of 0.842 - Random Forest using nine interpretable stylometric features detects GPT-assisted student writing with held-out ROC-AUC of 0.870 and F1 of 0.842
• Random measurement noise in pretest scores produces a negative contribution to the correlation between normalized gain and pretest score - Random measurement noise in pretest scores produces a negative contribution to the correlation between normalized gain and pretest score
• Random shot selection yields the worst originality-similarity combination, while greedy and constraint-satisfaction selection raise originality without increasing item redundancy - Random shot selection yields the worst originality-similarity combination, while greedy and constraint-satisfaction selection raise originality without increasing item redundancy
• Random-forest models trained on a prior semester showed significantly lower AUC when tested on a new semester's data without retraining - Random-forest models trained on a prior semester showed significantly lower AUC when tested on a new semester's data without retraining
• Random-intercept and lag2 panel models rest on different assumptions and offer alternative perspectives on controlling covariates - Random-intercept and lag2 panel models rest on different assumptions and offer alternative perspectives on controlling covariates
• Randomization does not ensure baseline equivalence in small-sample motor learning studies, so unbalanced pre-tests can overstate random-practice benefits - Randomization does not ensure baseline equivalence in small-sample motor learning studies, so unbalanced pre-tests can overstate random-practice benefits
• Randomized A/B tests of interventions encouraging higher-level study increased lessons completed per level by more than 10% and increased overall studying activity - Randomized A/B tests of interventions encouraging higher-level study increased lessons completed per level by more than 10% and increased overall studying activity
• Randomized assignment to a 3-step bedtime routine improved infant and toddler sleep outcomes relative to control - Randomized assignment to a 3-step bedtime routine improved infant and toddler sleep outcomes relative to control
• Randomized studies, as reviewed, find that students who make threats in CSTAG schools more often receive counseling and less often long-term suspension or transfer, with the largest changes in higher-fidelity schools - Randomized studies, as reviewed, find that students who make threats in CSTAG schools more often receive counseling and less often long-term suspension or transfer, with the largest changes in higher-
• Randomly assigned use of public space significantly reduced the SES gap in belonging, but the race-by-condition interaction was not significant - Randomly assigned use of public space significantly reduced the SES gap in belonging, but the race-by-condition interaction was not significant
• Rank orderings of teachers do not change radically under mild scale transformations - Rank orderings of teachers do not change radically under mild scale transformations
• Rank-averaged ensembling stabilized predictions but did not outperform the single base model - Rank-averaged ensembling stabilized predictions but did not outperform the single base model
• Rank-based metrics can be misleading for analytic assessment: systems prompted for holistic scoring achieve strong, sometimes stronger, correlations with analytic scores than when prompted for those aspects - Rank-based metrics can be misleading for analytic assessment: systems prompted for holistic scoring achieve strong, sometimes stronger, correlations with analytic scores than when prompted for those a
• Rank-ordering students is irrelevant to teaching because teaching is not claimed to have occurred unless each student learned, per the author's Dewey-inspired argument - Rank-ordering students is irrelevant to teaching because teaching is not claimed to have occurred unless each student learned, per the author's Dewey-inspired argument
• Ranking by the Scholastic Quotient corresponded very closely with the consensus ranking of all teachers across more than 4,000 report cards - Ranking by the Scholastic Quotient corresponded very closely with the consensus ranking of all teachers across more than 4,000 report cards
• Ranking marks have little meaning unless the percentage of students admitted to each rank accords with a recognized standard - Ranking marks have little meaning unless the percentage of students admitted to each rank accords with a recognized standard
• Rankings of the same 120 junior high pupils by the Otis and Illinois group intelligence tests disagreed by a median of 18 places, with a rank correlation of 0.642 - Rankings of the same 120 junior high pupils by the Otis and Illinois group intelligence tests disagreed by a median of 18 places, with a rank correlation of 0.642
• Rapid AI generation may compress exploratory learning processes and reduce encounters with failure and material constraints - Rapid AI generation may compress exploratory learning processes and reduce encounters with failure and material constraints
• Rapid automatized naming is the only component skill weakly related to reading comprehension in struggling adult readers (r = .15) - Rapid automatized naming is the only component skill weakly related to reading comprehension in struggling adult readers (r = .15)
• Rapid guesses on computer-based tests reflect a construct-irrelevant response process rather than the tested knowledge, skills, and abilities - Rapid guesses on computer-based tests reflect a construct-irrelevant response process rather than the tested knowledge, skills, and abilities
• Rapid guesses on MAP Growth reflect a lack of engagement rather than a lack of knowledge - Rapid guesses on MAP Growth reflect a lack of engagement rather than a lack of knowledge
• Rapid guessing can be examined over three years using six test administrations to distinguish trait-like from situational disengagement - Rapid guessing can be examined over three years using six test administrations to distinguish trait-like from situational disengagement
• Rapid guessing can be identified from item-level response time, and its proper interpretation depends on contextual requirements - Rapid guessing can be identified from item-level response time, and its proper interpretation depends on contextual requirements
• Rapid guessing did not appear to substantively affect teacher value-added estimates under the value-added specifications used - Rapid guessing did not appear to substantively affect teacher value-added estimates under the value-added specifications used
• Rapid guessing differs from solution behavior as a form of test-taker disengagement - Rapid guessing differs from solution behavior as a form of test-taker disengagement
• Rapid guessing had mostly minimal effects on estimates of school contributions to student growth in this sample - Rapid guessing had mostly minimal effects on estimates of school contributions to student growth in this sample
• Rapid guessing is a validated indicator of disengaged item responding - Rapid guessing is a validated indicator of disengaged item responding
• Rapid guessing on achievement tests tends to be fairly state-like rather than a stable trait-like behavior, compared to academic achievement scores which are fairly stable - Rapid guessing on achievement tests tends to be fairly state-like rather than a stable trait-like behavior, compared to academic achievement scores which are fairly stable
• Rapid guessing on achievement tests varies across grades, subjects, and teachers - Rapid guessing on achievement tests varies across grades, subjects, and teachers
• Rapid reading gains about 26% more ideas per second than normal reading, and slow reading about 20% fewer, in all four groups - Rapid reading gains about 26% more ideas per second than normal reading, and slow reading about 20% fewer, in all four groups
• Rapid-guessing behavior can distort test scores and adversely affect measurement - Rapid-guessing behavior can distort test scores and adversely affect measurement
• Rapid-guessing behavior is consistently very low across demographic subpopulations - Rapid-guessing behavior is consistently very low across demographic subpopulations
• Rapid-guessing behavior occurs on only about 1% of item responses in a commercially available low-stakes assessment - Rapid-guessing behavior occurs on only about 1% of item responses in a commercially available low-stakes assessment
• Rapid-guessing behavior on an adaptive achievement test is inconsistent with most proposed models of unmotivated test taking except the effort-moderated model - Rapid-guessing behavior on an adaptive achievement test is inconsistent with most proposed models of unmotivated test taking except the effort-moderated model
• Rapid-guessing behavior on computer-based tests signals disengaged test taking that threatens score validity - Rapid-guessing behavior on computer-based tests signals disengaged test taking that threatens score validity
• Rapid-guessing behavior varies by item and is significantly related to item length, item position, and presence of ancillary reading material - Rapid-guessing behavior varies by item and is significantly related to item length, item position, and presence of ancillary reading material
• Rasch analysis indicates a five-point response format would improve the GenAI-RTS's category functioning - Rasch analysis indicates a five-point response format would improve the GenAI-RTS's category functioning
• Rasch-based refinement reduced the Early Ed Essentials surveys to 24 teacher measures (122 items) and 9 parent measures (42 items) - Rasch-based refinement reduced the Early Ed Essentials surveys to 24 teacher measures (122 items) and 9 parent measures (42 items)
• Rate and comprehension composites of silent reading tests correlate 0.84 in elementary grades - Rate and comprehension composites of silent reading tests correlate 0.84 in elementary grades
• Rate of growth in task-based inhibitory control is unrelated to later delinquent behavior - Rate of growth in task-based inhibitory control is unrelated to later delinquent behavior
• Rate of improvement in addition practice shows negative acceleration, with the first half of practice the more productive - Rate of improvement in addition practice shows negative acceleration, with the first half of practice the more productive
• Rate of silent reading rises most rapidly in grades 2, 3 and 4, while quality of silent reading increases at about the same rate throughout the grades. - Rate of silent reading rises most rapidly in grades 2, 3 and 4, while quality of silent reading increases at about the same rate throughout the grades.
• Rate tests that mechanically control comprehension yield more reliable results than uncontrolled rate tests - Rate tests that mechanically control comprehension yield more reliable results than uncontrolled rate tests
• Rater selection via two-facet Rasch infit filtering substantially increases inter-rater reliability (Krippendorff's alpha) on ICNALE GRA - Rater selection via two-facet Rasch infit filtering substantially increases inter-rater reliability (Krippendorff's alpha) on ICNALE GRA
• Raters correlate the importance of a trait with how much of it they credit themselves, an average correlation of +.52 read as a self-defense mechanism - Raters correlate the importance of a trait with how much of it they credit themselves, an average correlation of +.52 read as a self-defense mechanism
• Raters differed significantly in severity/leniency in the MFRM analysis - Raters differed significantly in severity/leniency in the MFRM analysis
• Raters scored significantly higher than AI on Emotional Support and significantly lower than AI on Instructional Support, with no difference for Classroom Organization - Raters scored significantly higher than AI on Emotional Support and significantly lower than AI on Instructional Support, with no difference for Classroom Organization
• Rather than the initial linear theory of action, a cycle of learning emerged generated by flexibility, relationships, and responsiveness - Rather than the initial linear theory of action, a cycle of learning emerged generated by flexibility, relationships, and responsiveness
• Rating distributions and FFT-VAM relationships were broadly similar across the two pilot phases, though top-two-category ratings decreased somewhat in Pittsburgh - Rating distributions and FFT-VAM relationships were broadly similar across the two pilot phases, though top-two-category ratings decreased somewhat in Pittsburgh
• Ratio-effect scores correlated with mathematics achievement in Experiment 1 but not in Experiment 2 with easier ratios - Ratio-effect scores correlated with mathematics achievement in Experiment 1 but not in Experiment 2 with easier ratios
• Rational-number CCS test performance is predicted by working memory capacity and, to a lesser extent, by intrusion errors in the listening span - Rational-number CCS test performance is predicted by working memory capacity and, to a lesser extent, by intrusion errors in the listening span
• Rationale-first evaluation improves depth alignment under the initial rubric but yields only limited gains for openness - Rationale-first evaluation improves depth alignment under the initial rubric but yields only limited gains for openness
• Rationales for using EMME differ systematically by task domain: sports studies emphasize quiet-eye strategy, medical studies strategy plus attention guidance, and STEM studies more often social mechanisms - Rationales for using EMME differ systematically by task domain: sports studies emphasize quiet-eye strategy, medical studies strategy plus attention guidance, and STEM studies more often social mechan
• Raven's and MicroDYN jointly explain 22% of variance in the stealth assessment estimate, with MicroDYN adding 5.7% unique variance beyond Raven's - Raven's and MicroDYN jointly explain 22% of variance in the stealth assessment estimate, with MicroDYN adding 5.7% unique variance beyond Raven's
• Raw effect size quartiles for STEM education interventions overall are 0.21, 0.48, and 0.86 at the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles - Raw effect size quartiles for STEM education interventions overall are 0.21, 0.48, and 0.86 at the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles
• Raw failure rates in the introductory biology course declined from 18.2% to 6.3% as course structure increased across quarters - Raw failure rates in the introductory biology course declined from 18.2% to 6.3% as course structure increased across quarters
• Raw postsecondary data are useful for descriptive purposes but may not give educators substantial new information beyond high school indicators - Raw postsecondary data are useful for descriptive purposes but may not give educators substantial new information beyond high school indicators
• RC text-structure intervention improves reading comprehension among second graders with comorbid RC and WPS difficulty (acquisition effects) - RC text-structure intervention improves reading comprehension among second graders with comorbid RC and WPS difficulty (acquisition effects)
• RC text-structure intervention transfers to word-problem solving (cross-domain far transfer versus control) - RC text-structure intervention transfers to word-problem solving (cross-domain far transfer versus control)
• RCR courses produce a pooled mean effect of g = 0.52, with knowledge (0.64) and behavior (0.69) outcomes showing larger average effects than judgment (0.41) - RCR courses produce a pooled mean effect of g = 0.52, with knowledge (0.64) and behavior (0.69) outcomes showing larger average effects than judgment (0.41)
• RCR is correlated with vocabulary and listening comprehension in the combined sample - RCR is correlated with vocabulary and listening comprehension in the combined sample
• Re-analyses support PSVT:R structural validity: degree of rotation explains 66.9% of item-difficulty variance, though modified problematic items show no rotation-difficulty relationship - Re-analyses support PSVT:R structural validity: degree of rotation explains 66.9% of item-difficulty variance, though modified problematic items show no rotation-difficulty relationship
• Re-measurement of final test scores after four months of remedial work indicated that classroom use of the Texas reading diagnosis procedures would prove profitable - Re-measurement of final test scores after four months of remedial work indicated that classroom use of the Texas reading diagnosis procedures would prove profitable
• Re-used Inquiry Learning Spaces were about four times more likely to be implemented than those created from scratch, and scaffolding increased the implementation rate - Re-used Inquiry Learning Spaces were about four times more likely to be implemented than those created from scratch, and scaffolding increased the implementation rate
• REACH evaluation ratings rose over time, with nearly 9 in 10 teachers receiving one of the top two ratings by 2016-17 - REACH evaluation ratings rose over time, with nearly 9 in 10 teachers receiving one of the top two ratings by 2016-17
• REACH observations consumed substantial administrator time—about six hours per observation cycle and roughly two to three full weeks per year - REACH observations consumed substantial administrator time—about six hours per observation cycle and roughly two to three full weeks per year
• Reach — which lever settings remain in force when the student is alone with AI — is the framework's organizing question - Reach — which lever settings remain in force when the student is alone with AI — is the framework's organizing question
• Reaching the qualitative SOLO phase in GenAI interaction required repeated meta-level learner interventions, demanding the very self-regulatory skills the tool was expected to support - Reaching the qualitative SOLO phase in GenAI interaction required repeated meta-level learner interventions, demanding the very self-regulatory skills the tool was expected to support
• React-ADDIE, integrating the ADDIE framework with ReAct-style reasoning, achieves the highest benchmark performance (86.49), outperforming pure theory-based agents and technique-only baselines - React-ADDIE, integrating the ADDIE framework with ReAct-style reasoning, achieves the highest benchmark performance (86.49), outperforming pure theory-based agents and technique-only baselines
• Reaction times and accuracy in n-back tasks have dissociable correlates and should not be interpreted interchangeably - Reaction times and accuracy in n-back tasks have dissociable correlates and should not be interpreted interchangeably
• Reaction times are faster during threat than safe conditions only on the high-load (3-back) task, in both adolescents and adults - Reaction times are faster during threat than safe conditions only on the high-load (3-back) task, in both adolescents and adults
• Reaction times differ significantly across all three cue conditions, with fastest RT for valid cues and slowest for no-cue stimuli - Reaction times differ significantly across all three cue conditions, with fastest RT for valid cues and slowest for no-cue stimuli
• Reaction times showed significant main effects of presentation format and numerical distance, but no main effect of magnitude - Reaction times showed significant main effects of presentation format and numerical distance, but no main effect of magnitude
• Reaction-time benefit from predictive context is similar across ages 12–24, suggesting mature prediction abilities by age 12 - Reaction-time benefit from predictive context is similar across ages 12–24, suggesting mature prediction abilities by age 12
• Reactive aggression is considerably more prevalent than proactive aggression among high school girls - Reactive aggression is considerably more prevalent than proactive aggression among high school girls
• Reactive FOF is more time-consuming than proactive FOF, reducing opportunities to elaborate on preselected grammar points - Reactive FOF is more time-consuming than proactive FOF, reducing opportunities to elaborate on preselected grammar points
• Reactive inhibition speed and accuracy improve with age between 8 and 11 years, while proactive response slowing does not increase with age - Reactive inhibition speed and accuracy improve with age between 8 and 11 years, while proactive response slowing does not increase with age
• Reactivity differs by rating scope: item-focused confidence ratings impaired rule learning while task-focused judgments of learning did not - Reactivity differs by rating scope: item-focused confidence ratings impaired rule learning while task-focused judgments of learning did not
• READ 180 shows a modest average effect size of +0.08 across five studies, qualifying it for a Strong evidence rating - READ 180 shows a modest average effect size of +0.08 across five studies, qualifying it for a Strong evidence rating
• READ 180 studies in Newark (NJ) and Memphis found no differences from control - READ 180 studies in Newark (NJ) and Memphis found no differences from control
• READ 180® comprehension effects are inconsistent across cohorts within the same study - READ 180® comprehension effects are inconsistent across cohorts within the same study
• READ 180® has positive effects on general literacy achievement for adolescent readers - READ 180® has positive effects on general literacy achievement for adolescent readers
• READ 180® has positive effects on reading comprehension for adolescent readers in grades 4–12 - READ 180® has positive effects on reading comprehension for adolescent readers in grades 4–12
• READ 180® has potentially positive effects on reading fluency for adolescent readers - READ 180® has potentially positive effects on reading fluency for adolescent readers
• READ 180® shows no discernible effects on alphabetics for adolescent readers - READ 180® shows no discernible effects on alphabetics for adolescent readers
• Read Naturally® shows mixed effects on reading fluency for beginning readers (average improvement index +7 percentile points) - Read Naturally® shows mixed effects on reading fluency for beginning readers (average improvement index +7 percentile points)
• Read Naturally® shows no discernible effects on alphabetics for beginning readers - Read Naturally® shows no discernible effects on alphabetics for beginning readers
• Read Naturally® shows no discernible effects on comprehension for beginning readers - Read Naturally® shows no discernible effects on comprehension for beginning readers
• Read Naturally® shows no discernible effects on reading fluency for students with learning disabilities, with small negative effect sizes on GORT-III accuracy and rate - Read Naturally® shows no discernible effects on reading fluency for students with learning disabilities, with small negative effect sizes on GORT-III accuracy and rate
• Read Naturally® shows potentially positive effects on general reading achievement for beginning readers (average improvement index +10 percentile points) - Read Naturally® shows potentially positive effects on general reading achievement for beginning readers (average improvement index +10 percentile points)
• Read Naturally® shows potentially positive effects on writing for students with learning disabilities, with a substantively important but non-significant effect size on the WIAT Written Expression subtest - Read Naturally® shows potentially positive effects on writing for students with learning disabilities, with a substantively important but non-significant effect size on the WIAT Written Expression sub
• Read Well® shows no discernible effects on reading achievement for elementary school English language learners - Read Well® shows no discernible effects on reading achievement for elementary school English language learners
• Read Well® shows potentially positive effects on English language development for elementary school English language learners - Read Well® shows potentially positive effects on English language development for elementary school English language learners
• Read, Write & Type!™ shows no discernible effects on reading comprehension or vocabulary for beginning readers - Read, Write & Type!™ shows no discernible effects on reading comprehension or vocabulary for beginning readers
• Read, Write & Type!™ shows no statistically significant alphabetics advantages over the Auditory Discrimination in Depth® comparison - Read, Write & Type!™ shows no statistically significant alphabetics advantages over the Auditory Discrimination in Depth® comparison
• Read, Write & Type!™ shows statistically significant positive effects on phoneme segmenting and word attack relative to regular classroom instruction for low-achieving first graders - Read, Write & Type!™ shows statistically significant positive effects on phoneme segmenting and word attack relative to regular classroom instruction for low-achieving first graders
• ReadAbout had a positive and significant impact in the study's second year among teachers with one year of experience using the intervention - ReadAbout had a positive and significant impact in the study's second year among teachers with one year of experience using the intervention
• ReadAbout showed a positive, statistically significant impact (effect size 0.22) on social studies reading comprehension for second-cohort students taught by teachers with one prior year of experience with the curriculum. - ReadAbout showed a positive, statistically significant impact (effect size 0.22) on social studies reading comprehension for second-cohort students taught by teachers with one prior year of experience
• Reader classes reflect a developmental shift from serial reading of all letter strings toward parallel processing of words and, later, nonwords - Reader classes reflect a developmental shift from serial reading of all letter strings toward parallel processing of words and, later, nonwords
• Reader misconceptions inhibit comprehension; low-skill readers prefer prior knowledge over contradictory text information - Reader misconceptions inhibit comprehension; low-skill readers prefer prior knowledge over contradictory text information
• Readers given a perspective or schema recall more text information than readers instructed to carefully read the story - Readers given a perspective or schema recall more text information than readers instructed to carefully read the story
• Readers in all conditions except sketching were overconfident, with the most overconfidence in the photograph condition and the least in the sketching condition - Readers in all conditions except sketching were overconfident, with the most overconfidence in the photograph condition and the least in the sketching condition
• Readers judge a diagram's argumentative position above chance in all conditions except when both text and color are absent, and deleting graphics is more detrimental than deleting text - Readers judge a diagram's argumentative position above chance in all conditions except when both text and color are absent, and deleting graphics is more detrimental than deleting text
• Readers locate sentences more accurately after reading a text in page-by-page presentation than in scrolling presentation - Readers locate sentences more accurately after reading a text in page-by-page presentation than in scrolling presentation
• Readers often struggle to match evidence types to claims, especially distinguishing correlational from causal evidence - Readers often struggle to match evidence types to claims, especially distinguishing correlational from causal evidence
• Readers with a study goal generate more backward/explanatory inferences during reading than readers with an entertainment goal - Readers with a study goal generate more backward/explanatory inferences during reading than readers with an entertainment goal
• Readers with a study goal generate more forward/predictive inferences during reading than readers with an entertainment goal - Readers with a study goal generate more forward/predictive inferences during reading than readers with an entertainment goal
• Readers with a study goal paraphrase and repeat text more often than readers with an entertainment goal - Readers with a study goal paraphrase and repeat text more often than readers with an entertainment goal
• Readers with an entertainment goal generate more associative inferences than readers with a study goal, though the participant-level test was marginal - Readers with an entertainment goal generate more associative inferences than readers with a study goal, though the participant-level test was marginal
• Readers with an entertainment goal make more evaluative comments than readers with a study goal, with no difference in affective responses - Readers with an entertainment goal make more evaluative comments than readers with a study goal, with no difference in affective responses
• Readers with developmental dyslexia show better spelling and nonword-image association performance when novel words are learned through typing rather than handwriting - Readers with developmental dyslexia show better spelling and nonword-image association performance when novel words are learned through typing rather than handwriting
• Readers with higher working memory capacity make more transitions between sentences (higher strength) - Readers with higher working memory capacity make more transitions between sentences (higher strength)
• Readers with misconceptions engage in more conceptual change strategies than readers without misconceptions, but only when reading a refutation text - Readers with misconceptions engage in more conceptual change strategies than readers without misconceptions, but only when reading a refutation text
• Readers with misconceptions generate more incorrect and fewer correct knowledge-based inferences than readers without misconceptions, in both text structures - Readers with misconceptions generate more incorrect and fewer correct knowledge-based inferences than readers without misconceptions, in both text structures
• Readers with misconceptions recall less textual information than readers without misconceptions, regardless of text structure - Readers with misconceptions recall less textual information than readers without misconceptions, regardless of text structure
• Readers with misconceptions spend more time reading law sentences than readers without misconceptions, but only in refutation texts - Readers with misconceptions spend more time reading law sentences than readers without misconceptions, but only in refutation texts
• Readers' judgment explanations support a cautious hierarchy of perceptual cues: content, then color, then space, then graphic features - Readers' judgment explanations support a cautious hierarchy of perceptual cues: content, then color, then space, then graphic features
• Reading a scientific text on heterogeneity did not increase beliefs about responding to school students' heterogeneity, indicating self-experience is the crucial element - Reading a scientific text on heterogeneity did not increase beliefs about responding to school students' heterogeneity, indicating self-experience is the crucial element
• Reading a selection through as a whole gives better study results than studying it part by part - Reading a selection through as a whole gives better study results than studying it part by part
• Reading a single authentic novel yields incidental vocabulary gains, with more gains for words occurring more than five times - Reading a single authentic novel yields incidental vocabulary gains, with more gains for words occurring more than five times
• Reading a text with related decorative pictures yields more correct answers to knowledge items than reading the text without pictures (Experiment 1, university students) - Reading a text with related decorative pictures yields more correct answers to knowledge items than reading the text without pictures (Experiment 1, university students)
• Reading achievement remained stalled as of Spring 2025 according to MAP Growth national data - Reading achievement remained stalled as of Spring 2025 according to MAP Growth national data
• Reading achievement was analyzed from 224 students with visual impairments in grades 3–10 in four states over an eight-year period using MAP data - Reading achievement was analyzed from 224 students with visual impairments in grades 3–10 in four states over an eight-year period using MAP data
• Reading achievement was nearly unrelated to behavioral problems across primary school, with only two significant cross-lagged paths - Reading achievement was nearly unrelated to behavioral problems across primary school, with only two significant cross-lagged paths
• Reading AI-generated scaffolds prompted teachers to reflect on and revise their classroom practices, and shifted initial AI hesitancy toward wanting students to use the tool - Reading AI-generated scaffolds prompted teachers to reflect on and revise their classroom practices, and shifted initial AI hesitancy toward wanting students to use the tool
• Reading and listening comprehension are not unitary: both consist of similar and different subskills - Reading and listening comprehension are not unitary: both consist of similar and different subskills
• Reading and listening yield similar proportions of incidental vocabulary learning, with reading ahead only on some immediate posttests - Reading produces greater incidental vocabulary gains and retention than listening, but listening may yield slightly higher retention for high-proficiency learners
• Reading and math achievement gains in 2021-22 paralleled pre-pandemic trends in many grades, with stronger rebounding in math and among younger students - Reading and math achievement gains in 2021-22 paralleled pre-pandemic trends in many grades, with stronger rebounding in math and among younger students
• Reading and math gains during 2020-21 were diminished compared to pre-pandemic trends, especially in the latter half of the school year - Reading and math gains during 2020-21 were diminished compared to pre-pandemic trends, especially in the latter half of the school year
• Reading and writing abilities share substantial overlap, supporting teaching writing based on reading - Reading and writing abilities share substantial overlap, supporting teaching writing based on reading
• Reading and writing are similar but not symmetric processes, with writing more demanding than reading - Reading and writing are similar but not symmetric processes, with writing more demanding than reading
• Reading Apprenticeship active-learning PD produced a year's reading growth and better state assessment results for students - Reading Apprenticeship active-learning PD produced a year's reading growth and better state assessment results for students
• Reading Apprenticeship® has potentially positive effects on grade point average in core subjects, based on one qualifying study - Reading Apprenticeship® has potentially positive effects on grade point average in core subjects, based on one qualifying study
• Reading Apprenticeship® has potentially positive effects on student science achievement in grades 7–9, based on one qualifying study - Reading Apprenticeship® has potentially positive effects on student science achievement in grades 7–9, based on one qualifying study
• Reading Apprenticeship® showed a statistically significant positive effect on the GRADE reading comprehension subtest for Cohort 2 ninth-grade students - Reading Apprenticeship® showed a statistically significant positive effect on the GRADE reading comprehension subtest for Cohort 2 ninth-grade students
• Reading Apprenticeship® showed no statistically significant effects on most GRADE outcomes: Cohort 1 comprehension and vocabulary, and Cohort 2 vocabulary - Reading Apprenticeship® showed no statistically significant effects on most GRADE outcomes: Cohort 1 comprehension and vocabulary, and Cohort 2 vocabulary
• Reading Apprenticeship® shows no effect on vocabulary (effect size 0.00) - Reading Apprenticeship® shows no effect on vocabulary (effect size 0.00)
• Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on life sciences achievement in one study - Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on life sciences achievement in one study
• Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on literacy achievement across five studies - Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on literacy achievement across five studies
• Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on mathematics achievement, with one significant negative finding - Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on mathematics achievement, with one significant negative finding
• Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on reading comprehension across five studies - Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on reading comprehension across five studies
• Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on social studies achievement in one study - Reading Apprenticeship® shows uncertain effects on social studies achievement in one study
• Reading approach and test delay each significantly affect knowledge-test performance, with no significant interaction (ηp2 = 0.02) - Reading approach and test delay each significantly affect knowledge-test performance, with no significant interaction (ηp2 = 0.02)
• Reading as a pastime peaked at about one-fifth of preferences among thirteen-to-fourteen-year-old girls - Reading as a pastime peaked at about one-fifth of preferences among thirteen-to-fourteen-year-old girls
• Reading comprehension ability predicts monitoring accuracy after a single reading but not after rereading (Experiments 1 and 2) - Reading comprehension ability predicts monitoring accuracy after a single reading but not after rereading (Experiments 1 and 2)
• Reading comprehension correlates 0.40 with spelling, 0.24 with arithmetic, and 0.10 with writing - Reading comprehension correlates 0.40 with spelling, 0.24 with arithmetic, and 0.10 with writing
• Reading comprehension differentially mediates the relations of discourse oral language and lexical literacy to writing quality in Grade 2 - Reading comprehension differentially mediates the relations of discourse oral language and lexical literacy to writing quality in Grade 2
• Reading comprehension is differentially correlated with the three dimensions of written composition in Grade 2: moderate relations with quality and correctness but weak relations with productivity - Reading comprehension is differentially correlated with the three dimensions of written composition in Grade 2: moderate relations with quality and correctness but weak relations with productivity
• Reading comprehension is hypothesized and tested as a component skill of writing, with reading-to-writing directionality supported by prior longitudinal evidence - Reading comprehension is hypothesized and tested as a component skill of writing, with reading-to-writing directionality supported by prior longitudinal evidence
• Reading comprehension is only marginally explained by reading fluency, with no group-by-fluency interaction - Reading comprehension is only marginally explained by reading fluency, with no group-by-fluency interaction
• Reading comprehension is slightly worse on handheld devices than in print in between-participants studies (g = -.113) - Reading comprehension is slightly worse on handheld devices than in print in between-participants studies (g = -.113)
• Reading comprehension measure choice moderates findings on the word reading–comprehension relation: short-passage tests show age effects, long-passage tests do not - Reading comprehension measure choice moderates findings on the word reading–comprehension relation: short-passage tests show age effects, long-passage tests do not
• Reading comprehension measured with open questions uniquely predicts integration while cloze-measured comprehension does not - Reading comprehension measured with open questions uniquely predicts integration while cloze-measured comprehension does not
• Reading comprehension predicted retrieval, transfer, and retention more strongly than decoding, with a weaker modality interaction favoring lower-comprehension children in retention - Reading comprehension predicted retrieval, transfer, and retention more strongly than decoding, with a weaker modality interaction favoring lower-comprehension children in retention
• Reading comprehension relates to sourcing in half of reviewed studies, with no age-based explanation for the split - Reading comprehension relates to sourcing in half of reviewed studies, with no age-based explanation for the split
• Reading comprehension significantly predicts verbal Math Reasoning but not non-verbal Numerical Operations - Reading comprehension significantly predicts verbal Math Reasoning but not non-verbal Numerical Operations
• Reading comprehension strategy programs in grades 3–6 yield a medium average effect size of 0.34 - Reading comprehension strategy programs in grades 3–6 yield a medium average effect size of 0.34
• Reading comprehension strongly predicts achievement from high-density microtext, unlike other density conditions - Reading comprehension strongly predicts achievement from high-density microtext, unlike other density conditions
• Reading comprehension uniquely adjusted behavioral engagement, with better comprehenders investing more time and writing longer responses - Reading comprehension uniquely adjusted behavioral engagement, with better comprehenders investing more time and writing longer responses
• Reading comprehension variance is fully shared with listening comprehension and word reading - Reading comprehension variance is fully shared with listening comprehension and word reading
• Reading comprehension, self-concept and interest were collected prior to learning only to ensure comparability of conditions - Reading comprehension, self-concept and interest were collected prior to learning only to ensure comparability of conditions
• Reading deficits are uniquely associated with phoneme awareness and naming speed, whereas math deficits are uniquely associated with set shifting - Reading deficits are uniquely associated with phoneme awareness and naming speed, whereas math deficits are uniquely associated with set shifting
• Reading fiction gives at most a very small gain on theory-of-mind and social-cognition tasks, and the single-passage literary-fiction effect did not replicate
• Reading fluency developed linearly in the sample, with an average six-month increase of 4.30 raw score units homogeneous across the performance range - Reading fluency developed linearly in the sample, with an average six-month increase of 4.30 raw score units homogeneous across the performance range
• Reading for Knowledge had a statistically significant negative impact on students' reading comprehension scores in the study's first year - Reading for Knowledge had a statistically significant negative impact on students' reading comprehension scores in the study's first year
• Reading for study produced a main memory advantage over reading for comprehension for target sentences - Reading for study produced a main memory advantage over reading for comprehension for target sentences
• Reading for study results in slower reading than reading for general comprehension on both target and spill-over sentences - Reading for study results in slower reading than reading for general comprehension on both target and spill-over sentences
• Reading goal × congruency interaction on memory: study goal improves memory for congruent but not incongruent targets - Reading goal × congruency interaction on memory: study goal improves memory for congruent but not incongruent targets
• Reading goals affect post-validation representation-building rather than validation processes directly - Reading goals affect post-validation representation-building rather than validation processes directly
• Reading goals do not influence validation processes: no goal × congruency or goal × accuracy interactions on reading times - Reading goals do not influence validation processes: no goal × congruency or goal × accuracy interactions on reading times
• Reading growth trajectories of students with visual impairments trend upward at a steady pace while the gap with the national norm remains wide - Reading growth trajectories of students with visual impairments trend upward at a steady pace while the gap with the national norm remains wide
• Reading instructions without further instructional support are not sufficient to help students accurately judge their text comprehension - Reading instructions without further instructional support are not sufficient to help students accurately judge their text comprehension
• Reading interventions improve word spelling (g = 0.93) more than word reading (g = 0.63) - Reading interventions improve word spelling (g = 0.93) more than word reading (g = 0.63)
• Reading interventions significantly improve literacy skills of Chinese children overall (g = 0.68) - Reading interventions significantly improve literacy skills of Chinese children overall (g = 0.68)
• Reading is the strongest predictor of spelling across all word types, while sublexical knowledge predicts pseudoword spelling only and is negatively associated with irregular word spelling - Reading is the strongest predictor of spelling across all word types, while sublexical knowledge predicts pseudoword spelling only and is negatively associated with irregular word spelling
• Reading Mastery has potentially positive effects on reading fluency for adolescent learners, with a WWC improvement index of +19 percentile points - Reading Mastery has potentially positive effects on reading fluency for adolescent learners, with a WWC improvement index of +19 percentile points
• Reading Mastery shows no discernible effects on reading comprehension for adolescent learners, with an average improvement index of –7 percentile points - Reading Mastery shows no discernible effects on reading comprehension for adolescent learners, with an average improvement index of –7 percentile points
• Reading order in matrix diagrams followed the header content (types) rather than arrow orientation - Reading order in matrix diagrams followed the header content (types) rather than arrow orientation
• Reading outcomes of struggling adolescent readers were strongly related to the instructional modality of a common reading program (Calhoon and Petscher) - Reading outcomes of struggling adolescent readers were strongly related to the instructional modality of a common reading program (Calhoon and Petscher)
• Reading Partners tutoring significantly improves reading comprehension for grade 2-4 struggling readers, with a total effect size of +0.10 - Reading Partners tutoring significantly improves reading comprehension for grade 2-4 struggling readers, with a total effect size of +0.10
• Reading passages segmented along phrase boundaries (pausal or syntactic) yields higher comprehension scores than standard prose format in elementary students - Reading passages segmented along phrase boundaries (pausal or syntactic) yields higher comprehension scores than standard prose format in elementary students
• Reading Plus® produced a statistically significant positive effect on FCAT reading comprehension for low-achieving adolescent learners, with a small WWC-calculated effect of 0.06 - Reading Plus® produced a statistically significant positive effect on FCAT reading comprehension for low-achieving adolescent learners, with a small WWC-calculated effect of 0.06
• Reading proficiency improved across all performance groups, with low performers reaching Grade 3b reading standards and top performers reaching Grade 6a–7a levels by Cycle 3 - Reading proficiency improved across all performance groups, with low performers reaching Grade 3b reading standards and top performers reaching Grade 6a–7a levels by Cycle 3
• Reading proficiency level moderates incidental vocabulary gains: higher-proficiency readers gained more, consistent with i+1 - Reading proficiency level moderates incidental vocabulary gains: higher-proficiency readers gained more, consistent with i+1
• Reading provided examples is not more effective than generating examples for learning relational categories - Reading provided examples is not more effective than generating examples for learning relational categories
• Reading rates for different samples of unmutilated illegible writing intercorrelate only moderately, with the highest correlation .552 (A 1 and B 1) and one pair too low to be significant. - Reading rates for different samples of unmutilated illegible writing intercorrelate only moderately, with the highest correlation .552 (A 1 and B 1) and one pair too low to be significant.
• Reading Recovery has positive effects on general reading achievement for beginning readers, based on three randomized controlled trials - Reading Recovery has positive effects on general reading achievement for beginning readers, based on three randomized controlled trials
• Reading Recovery has potentially positive effects on alphabetics for beginning readers - Reading Recovery has potentially positive effects on alphabetics for beginning readers
• Reading Recovery has potentially positive effects on comprehension, with mixed findings across two trials - Reading Recovery has potentially positive effects on comprehension, with mixed findings across two trials
• Reading Recovery has potentially positive effects on reading fluency, from a single randomized trial - Reading Recovery has potentially positive effects on reading fluency, from a single randomized trial
• Reading Recovery improves receptive communication skills immediately after the intervention, with promising evidence from one small quasi-experimental study - Reading Recovery improves receptive communication skills immediately after the intervention, with promising evidence from one small quasi-experimental study
• Reading Recovery improves writing conventions three years after the intervention, but the effect is significant only against one of the two comparison groups - Reading Recovery improves writing conventions three years after the intervention, but the effect is significant only against one of the two comparison groups
• Reading Recovery improves writing productivity immediately after the intervention, with promising evidence from one small quasi-experimental study - Reading Recovery improves writing productivity immediately after the intervention, with promising evidence from one small quasi-experimental study
• Reading Recovery positively impacts grade 1 literacy achievement immediately after the intervention, with moderate evidence from one randomized controlled trial - Reading Recovery positively impacts grade 1 literacy achievement immediately after the intervention, with moderate evidence from one randomized controlled trial
• Reading Recovery shows strong ESSA evidence of positive effects on general literacy achievement and moderate evidence on academic dispositions for grade 1 students - Reading Recovery shows strong ESSA evidence of positive effects on general literacy achievement and moderate evidence on academic dispositions for grade 1 students
• Reading Recovery shows uncertain effects on general academic achievement ten years after the intervention - Reading Recovery shows uncertain effects on general academic achievement ten years after the intervention
• Reading Recovery shows uncertain effects on mathematics achievement three years after the intervention - Reading Recovery shows uncertain effects on mathematics achievement three years after the intervention
• Reading researcher field-notes acted as wake-up calls that made unreflective value-laden practices visible to teachers - Reading researcher field-notes acted as wake-up calls that made unreflective value-laden practices visible to teachers
• Reading score distributions within A–F letter grades overlap heavily, so letter grades misrepresent the achievement of many individual students - Reading score distributions within A–F letter grades overlap heavily, so letter grades misrepresent the achievement of many individual students
• Reading score trends flattened for ages 9-12 and declined at ages 9 and 12 in the grade equivalent metric by 2000 - Reading score trends flattened for ages 9-12 and declined at ages 9 and 12 in the grade equivalent metric by 2000
• Reading SEMs exceed those in mathematics under all pool types, and only the all-grade reading pool meets the operational SEM stopping rule on average - Reading SEMs exceed those in mathematics under all pool types, and only the all-grade reading pool meets the operational SEM stopping rule on average
• Reading Strategy Instruction Improves Comprehension
• Reading text and presenting graphics on handheld screens are more difficult than on paper, and interactivity may be compromised - Reading text and presenting graphics on handheld screens are more difficult than on paper, and interactivity may be compromised
• Reading the own-side account elicited more valid elaborative inferences, relevant associations, consequences-for-present statements and evaluative comments, while the other-side account elicited more invalid inferences - Reading the own-side account elicited more valid elaborative inferences, relevant associations, consequences-for-present statements and evaluative comments, while the other-side account elicited more
• Reading time did not differ between Page and Scroll, though Page readers tended to backtrack more - Reading time did not differ between Page and Scroll, though Page readers tended to backtrack more
• Reading times for unknown words decrease significantly after three to four encounters, and by eight encounters unknown words are read like known words - Reading times for unknown words decrease significantly after three to four encounters, and by eight encounters unknown words are read like known words
• Reading times on unfamiliar words decrease non-linearly, following an S-shaped curve, as exposures accumulate during natural reading - Reading times on unfamiliar words decrease non-linearly, following an S-shaped curve, as exposures accumulate during natural reading
• Reading with marginal glosses is the most beneficial task condition for incidental vocabulary acquisition gains - Reading with marginal glosses is the most beneficial task condition for incidental vocabulary acquisition gains
• Reading-as-the-reader perspective-taking improves young writers' revision and new drafting of descriptive essays in both 5th and 9th grade - Reading-as-the-reader perspective-taking improves young writers' revision and new drafting of descriptive essays in both 5th and 9th grade
• Reading-defined regions uniquely predict distinct cognitive subcomponents: LSTG for phonetic representation, LSMG for phonological awareness, and LITG for orthography-phonology mapping - Reading-defined regions uniquely predict distinct cognitive subcomponents: LSTG for phonetic representation, LSMG for phonological awareness, and LITG for orthography-phonology mapping
• Reading-related skills show significant individual differences in growth rates in kindergarten through grade 2 but not in grades 3 through 5 - Reading-related skills show significant individual differences in growth rates in kindergarten through grade 2 but not in grades 3 through 5
• Ready, Set, Leap!® effects do not persist to kindergarten follow-up on oral language, print knowledge, or math measures - Ready, Set, Leap!® effects do not persist to kindergarten follow-up on oral language, print knowledge, or math measures
• Ready, Set, Leap!® has no significant effect on preschool early reading/writing (effect size 0.09) - Ready, Set, Leap!® has no significant effect on preschool early reading/writing (effect size 0.09)
• Ready, Set, Leap!® has no significant effect on preschool oral language (domain average effect size 0.02) - Ready, Set, Leap!® has no significant effect on preschool oral language (domain average effect size 0.02)
• Ready, Set, Leap!® has no significant effect on preschool phonological processing (domain average effect size 0.06) - Ready, Set, Leap!® has no significant effect on preschool phonological processing (domain average effect size 0.06)
• Ready, Set, Leap!® has no significant effect on preschool print knowledge (domain average effect size 0.06) - Ready, Set, Leap!® has no significant effect on preschool print knowledge (domain average effect size 0.06)
• Ready, Set, Leap!® shows no discernible effects on oral language, print knowledge, phonological processing, early reading/writing, or math in preschoolers - Ready, Set, Leap!® shows no discernible effects on oral language, print knowledge, phonological processing, early reading/writing, or math in preschoolers
• Ready, Set, Leap!® shows no significant effect on preschool math; the study authors' negative finding was not significant in WWC calculations - Ready, Set, Leap!® shows no significant effect on preschool math; the study authors' negative finding was not significant in WWC calculations
• Real cohorts separate from marginal-preserving surrogates of themselves in all four years, while three of four synthetic cohorts do not - Real cohorts separate from marginal-preserving surrogates of themselves in all four years, while three of four synthetic cohorts do not
• Real collaborative groups show higher physiological synchrony than randomly matched false groups on %REC, %DET, and ADL - Real collaborative groups show higher physiological synchrony than randomly matched false groups on %REC, %DET, and ADL
• Real word decoding relates more strongly to adult reading comprehension (r = .52) than pseudoword decoding (r = .42), though not significantly - Real word decoding relates more strongly to adult reading comprehension (r = .52) than pseudoword decoding (r = .42), though not significantly
• Real-life complex tasks carry high intrinsic cognitive load, requiring new load-management methods - Real-life complex tasks carry high intrinsic cognitive load, requiring new load-management methods
• Real-time adaptive scaffolding based on note-coded proof indicators elicited more elaborate diagnostic reasoning - Real-time adaptive scaffolding based on note-coded proof indicators elicited more elaborate diagnostic reasoning
• Real-time AI alerts can expand teachers' situational awareness but in some cases overload teachers' attention or draw focus away from their own observation flow - Real-time AI alerts can expand teachers' situational awareness but in some cases overload teachers' attention or draw focus away from their own observation flow
• Real-time data collection made the momentum lab substantially more efficient, cutting lab duration from two hours to one - Real-time data collection made the momentum lab substantially more efficient, cutting lab duration from two hours to one
• Real-time detection of SRL processes can personalize scaffold content, with all five scaffolds personalized to some extent but to varying degrees (scaffolds 2 and 5 most, scaffold 3 least). - Real-time detection of SRL processes can personalize scaffold content, with all five scaffolds personalized to some extent but to varying degrees (scaffolds 2 and 5 most, scaffold 3 least).
• Real-time in-session feedback remains rare among presentation-coaching systems - Real-time in-session feedback remains rare among presentation-coaching systems
• Realism can serve as signaling when a drastic contrast in shading and rendering highlights relevant parts - Realism can serve as signaling when a drastic contrast in shading and rendering highlights relevant parts
• Realism effects on learning depend on knowledge type: advantages for surface learning, disadvantages for abstract content - Realism effects on learning depend on knowledge type: advantages for surface learning, disadvantages for abstract content
• Realism issues were detected by agents during generation but were rare in final versions - Realism issues were detected by agents during generation but were rare in final versions
• Realistic visual detail can raise retention despite higher extraneous load ratings (the realism paradox), with benefits tied to test objectives - Realistic visual detail can raise retention despite higher extraneous load ratings (the realism paradox), with benefits tied to test objectives
• Reallocating resources enabled differentiated professional learning for English learners and students with disabilities - Reallocating resources enabled differentiated professional learning for English learners and students with disabilities
• Reanalyses of SCT choice-paradigm studies support the BFLPE, which was not moderated by students' chosen comparison targets - Reanalyses of SCT choice-paradigm studies support the BFLPE, which was not moderated by students' chosen comparison targets
• Reanalyses of simulated and PALMA data provide converging support for the extended reciprocal effects model, including an effect of academic self-concept on achievement - Reanalyses of simulated and PALMA data provide converging support for the extended reciprocal effects model, including an effect of academic self-concept on achievement
• Reanalysis of pooled data from four multimedia learning experiments found quadratic interactions, with the largest design difference at medium ability - Reanalysis of pooled data from four multimedia learning experiments found quadratic interactions, with the largest design difference at medium ability
• Reanalysis of previously-published data replicates the incongruent-trial pattern in children, with a marginal effect in adults - Reanalysis of previously-published data replicates the incongruent-trial pattern in children, with a marginal effect in adults
• Reanalysis of the inconsistent target word (longer rereading time and higher revisit probability) is associated with higher consistency judgement accuracy in inconsistent texts, but not in consistent texts - Reanalysis of the inconsistent target word (longer rereading time and higher revisit probability) is associated with higher consistency judgement accuracy in inconsistent texts, but not in consistent
• Reanalysis of the pre-target text (rereading time and revisit frequency) interacted significantly with consistency condition in predicting consistency judgement accuracy - Reanalysis of the pre-target text (rereading time and revisit frequency) interacted significantly with consistency condition in predicting consistency judgement accuracy
• Reappraisal ability shows linear and quadratic relationships with age, while self-reported emotional reactivity shows no age differences - Reappraisal ability shows linear and quadratic relationships with age, while self-reported emotional reactivity shows no age differences
• Reasoning moderates the word-problem intervention's advantage, and the intervention did not compensate for low reasoning - Reasoning moderates the word-problem intervention's advantage, and the intervention did not compensate for low reasoning
• Reasoning scores of both prospective and current faculty teachers increased significantly during the short pedagogical training, but noticing did not improve significantly in either group - Reasoning scores of both prospective and current faculty teachers increased significantly during the short pedagogical training, but noticing did not improve significantly in either group
• Reasoning with ground-truth auxiliary diagrams consistently outperforms reasoning from the original diagram alone on GeoVAD-Bench - Reasoning with ground-truth auxiliary diagrams consistently outperforms reasoning from the original diagram alone on GeoVAD-Bench
• Reasoning-capable model variants and chain-of-thought prompting yield no measurable improvement in either alignment axis for classroom evaluation - Reasoning-capable model variants and chain-of-thought prompting yield no measurable improvement in either alignment axis for classroom evaluation
• Reasoning-process features are particularly useful when difficulty depends on multi-step problem solving, and the representation also generalizes to text-based assessment items - Reasoning-process features are particularly useful when difficulty depends on multi-step problem solving, and the representation also generalizes to text-based assessment items
• Reasoning-trace exposure raised trust and hedonic appeal without performance benefits, shifting subjective appraisal of the interaction - Reasoning-trace exposure raised trust and hedonic appeal without performance benefits, shifting subjective appraisal of the interaction
• Reasons for applying bilingual education in Indonesian universities are internationalization, foreign language competencies, and law implementation - Reasons for applying bilingual education in Indonesian universities are internationalization, foreign language competencies, and law implementation
• Recalibrated 5Essentials measures based on 2014–19 data maintained acceptable Rasch reliability and school-level variance - Recalibrated 5Essentials measures based on 2014–19 data maintained acceptable Rasch reliability and school-level variance
• Recall from bar graphs is more accurate when the recall format matches the studied graph format, a small effect that the content's thematic emphasis can override
• Recall is higher in untimed than timed conditions and for easy than difficult items, with a three-way age-by-condition-by-difficulty interaction driven by adults outperforming 10-year-olds on timed difficult items - Recall is higher in untimed than timed conditions and for easy than difficult items, with a three-way age-by-condition-by-difficulty interaction driven by adults outperforming 10-year-olds on timed di
• Recall of between-lists repeated words matched two-independent-representations predictions at short retention intervals but exceeded independence after long retention intervals - Recall of between-lists repeated words matched two-independent-representations predictions at short retention intervals but exceeded independence after long retention intervals
• Recall of passage details is most depressed when children receive both underlining and conceptual postquestions - Recall of passage details is most depressed when children receive both underlining and conceptual postquestions
• Recall of words repeated across lists spaced up to 1 week follows a proportionality rule: recall is better after short spacing at short retention intervals but better after long spacing at long retention intervals - Recall of words repeated across lists spaced up to 1 week follows a proportionality rule: recall is better after short spacing at short retention intervals but better after long spacing at long retent
• Recall time shows practically no correlation with accuracy of recall in college students (coefficient -.09) - Recall time shows practically no correlation with accuracy of recall in college students (coefficient -.09)
• Recall-oriented anchor selection achieved a 17.93% anchor rate and 94.63% non-empty OCR rate, which the authors interpret as anchors frequently capturing visible educational content that transcript chunks omit - Recall-oriented anchor selection achieved a 17.93% anchor rate and 94.63% non-empty OCR rate, which the authors interpret as anchors frequently capturing visible educational content that transcript ch
• Recalling past confidence versus doubt validates or invalidates thoughts and shifts GRE performance accordingly - Recalling past confidence versus doubt validates or invalidates thoughts and shifts GRE performance accordingly
• Recasts were provided more predominantly than prompts and explicit correction in both French immersion and Japanese immersion elementary classrooms - Recasts were provided more predominantly than prompts and explicit correction in both French immersion and Japanese immersion elementary classrooms
• Receiver characteristics such as academic self-concept, self-efficacy, and achievement are proposed to moderate learners' engagement with feedback, but the achievement relation is conflicting - Receiver characteristics such as academic self-concept, self-efficacy, and achievement are proposed to moderate learners' engagement with feedback, but the achievement relation is conflicting
• Receiving an intensive, one-on-one service may matter more than receiving services across multiple pillars - Receiving an intensive, one-on-one service may matter more than receiving services across multiple pillars
• Receiving an offer of admission to a KIPP middle school increases enrollment in 4-year college programs by 6.9 percentage points - Receiving an offer of admission to a KIPP middle school increases enrollment in 4-year college programs by 6.9 percentage points
• Receiving elaborate explanations benefits learning only when the receiver can apply the explanation in a related task - Receiving elaborate explanations benefits learning only when the receiver can apply the explanation in a related task
• Receiving grades is positively associated with achievement and external motivation compared with receiving no performance feedback (review-reported meta-analysis) - Receiving grades is positively associated with achievement and external motivation compared with receiving no performance feedback (review-reported meta-analysis)
• Receiving instruction before problem solving improves procedural fluency more than problem solving before instruction when both phases are otherwise identical - Receiving instruction before problem solving improves procedural fluency more than problem solving before instruction when both phases are otherwise identical
• Receiving positive affective feedback from peers is a significant predictor of assessees' project performance - Receiving positive affective feedback from peers is a significant predictor of assessees' project performance
• Receiving two model answer diagrams improves secondary students' delayed-diagramming text comprehension relative to no model answers - Receiving two model answer diagrams improves secondary students' delayed-diagramming text comprehension relative to no model answers
• Recent AI-in-education studies often rely on subjective or performance-during-support measures and weak comparison designs, limiting claims about learning effects - Recent AI-in-education studies often rely on subjective or performance-during-support measures and weak comparison designs, limiting claims about learning effects
• Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models support guidance during instruction - Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models support guidance during instruction
• Recent evidence confirms teacher quality is a critical component of student achievement - Recent evidence confirms teacher quality is a critical component of student achievement
• Recent research identifies time intervals during which spaced study should occur to maximize memory retention - Recent research identifies time intervals during which spaced study should occur to maximize memory retention
• Recent studies of large statewide voucher programs found substantial negative effects on achievement for voucher students compared to similar public school students - Recent studies of large statewide voucher programs found substantial negative effects on achievement for voucher students compared to similar public school students
• Reciprocal associations between relationship quality and emotions are largely equivalent across school domains - Reciprocal associations between relationship quality and emotions are largely equivalent across school domains
• Reciprocal effects are robust to time-invariant confounders, but the French lagged self-concept effect did not survive the lag2 carryover stress test - Reciprocal effects are robust to time-invariant confounders, but the French lagged self-concept effect did not survive the lag2 carryover stress test
• Reciprocal relations: initial task engagement predicted later enjoyment in the Reverse model - Reciprocal relations: initial task engagement predicted later enjoyment in the Reverse model
• Reciprocal Teaching Improves Reading Comprehension
• Reciprocity predicts the initiation of new potential collaborations at scientific events - Reciprocity predicts the initiation of new potential collaborations at scientific events
• Recognition of individual Pepper-produced LIS signs varies widely, with several signs significantly above chance and others not significant - Recognition of individual Pepper-produced LIS signs varies widely, with several signs significantly above chance and others not significant
• Recognition tests yield higher word-learning effect sizes than recall tests - Recognition tests yield higher word-learning effect sizes than recall tests
• Recognition was not associated with item difficulty - Recognition was not associated with item difficulty
• Recognizing carbon-saving impacts increases the likelihood of selecting eco modes in LLM interactions - Recognizing carbon-saving impacts increases the likelihood of selecting eco modes in LLM interactions
• Recommendation homogeneity does not differ between students using ChatGPT 3.5 and students using Google - Recommendation homogeneity does not differ between students using ChatGPT 3.5 and students using Google
• Recommended MAP Growth screening cut scores yield sensitivity, specificity, and lower-bound AUC of at least 0.8 for most grades and terms - Recommended MAP Growth screening cut scores yield sensitivity, specificity, and lower-bound AUC of at least 0.8 for most grades and terms
• Recorded lectures are a controversial accessibility strategy: faculty cite decimated attendance and poorer grades, while acknowledging benefits for some student groups - Recorded lectures are a controversial accessibility strategy: faculty cite decimated attendance and poorer grades, while acknowledging benefits for some student groups
• Recorded natural-language feedback was associated with lower odds of subsequent persistent failure than no feedback in the randomized course subset - Recorded natural-language feedback was associated with lower odds of subsequent persistent failure than no feedback in the randomized course subset
• Recording and listening to his own read-alouds helped the student read more accurately and comprehend more than following a teacher's read-aloud - Recording and listening to his own read-alouds helped the student read more accurately and comprehend more than following a teacher's read-aloud
• Recording angle alone does not affect self-reported cognitive load during video observation or task execution - Recording angle alone does not affect self-reported cognitive load during video observation or task execution
• Recovery high school attendance may improve absenteeism, abstinence, and reduce marijuana and other drug use, based on a single quasi‐experimental study with serious risk of bias - Recovery high school attendance may improve absenteeism, abstinence, and reduce marijuana and other drug use, based on a single quasi‐experimental study with serious risk of bias
• Recovery high schools were no better or worse than comparison high schools on grade point average, truancy, or alcohol use in the single included study - Recovery high schools were no better or worse than comparison high schools on grade point average, truancy, or alcohol use in the single included study
• Recovery-related behavioral features add only a small, unstable held-out Macro-F1 gain for final-success prediction in DTA logs (0.725 to 0.743), with negligible average window-sensitivity differences - Recovery-related behavioral features add only a small, unstable held-out Macro-F1 gain for final-success prediction in DTA logs (0.725 to 0.743), with negligible average window-sensitivity differences
• Recruitment and retention of teaching staff is an activity integral to school improvement efforts under SIG, and the article presents findings on it in rural schools - Recruitment and retention of teaching staff is an activity integral to school improvement efforts under SIG, and the article presents findings on it in rural schools
• Recurring benefits of GenAI in STEAM education include engagement, teacher productivity, and creativity when supported by sound pedagogy - Recurring benefits of GenAI in STEAM education include engagement, teacher productivity, and creativity when supported by sound pedagogy
• Recurring functional/conceptual spaces (personal space, shared work area, conclusions, discard) emerged in every interaction, and pairs resisted re-designating designated spaces - Recurring functional/conceptual spaces (personal space, shared work area, conclusions, discard) emerged in every interaction, and pairs resisted re-designating designated spaces
• Recurring mechanism clusters — self-regulation, metacognition, critical thinking, self-efficacy, trust, feedback literacy, AI literacy — link GenAI use to agency outcomes - Recurring mechanism clusters — self-regulation, metacognition, critical thinking, self-efficacy, trust, feedback literacy, AI literacy — link GenAI use to agency outcomes
• Recurring movements between professional (in-role) and educational (out-of-role) contexts during simulation are important for simulator training to fulfil its pedagogical potential - Recurring movements between professional (in-role) and educational (out-of-role) contexts during simulation are important for simulator training to fulfil its pedagogical potential
• Recurring risks of GenAI in STEAM education include hallucination, bias, superficial completion strategies, and compromised assessment validity - Recurring risks of GenAI in STEAM education include hallucination, bias, superficial completion strategies, and compromised assessment validity
• Red Light, Purple Light has potentially positive effects on preschool children's self-regulation, with moderate evidence - Red Light, Purple Light has potentially positive effects on preschool children's self-regulation, with moderate evidence
• Red Light, Purple Light shows uncertain effects on preschool language outcomes - Red Light, Purple Light shows uncertain effects on preschool language outcomes
• Red Light, Purple Light shows uncertain effects on reading and literacy related achievement - Red Light, Purple Light shows uncertain effects on reading and literacy related achievement
• Redesigned PD pairing the Language Storybook and Jonathan and the Sun discussion with tailored facilitation shifted the community toward anti-deficit, transformative perspectives - Redesigned PD pairing the Language Storybook and Jonathan and the Sun discussion with tailored facilitation shifted the community toward anti-deficit, transformative perspectives
• Redesigning a mathematics methodology module yielded six learning outcomes sequenced from lower to higher levels of understanding across six dimensions - Redesigning a mathematics methodology module yielded six learning outcomes sequenced from lower to higher levels of understanding across six dimensions
• Redesigning the second research lesson cycle so students compared results across groups raised correct answers on the volume item from 11% to 80% - Redesigning the second research lesson cycle so students compared results across groups raised correct answers on the volume item from 11% to 80%
• Redshirted children may gain a physical maturity advantage over peers, which some parents cite for sports - Redshirted children may gain a physical maturity advantage over peers, which some parents cite for sports
• Redshirted students may have potentially lower lifetime earnings because they enter the labor force a year later - Redshirted students may have potentially lower lifetime earnings because they enter the labor force a year later
• Redshirted students' early-grade academic advantage over on-time peers fades as students move through school - Redshirted students' early-grade academic advantage over on-time peers fades as students move through school
• Redshirting kindergartners likely carries costs that outweigh its academic benefits - Redshirting kindergartners likely carries costs that outweigh its academic benefits
• Redshirting trends among U.S. kindergartners were examined between fall 2017 and 2025 using data on over three million students - Redshirting trends among U.S.
• Reduced efficacy shows the largest negative correlation with academic achievement (rc+ = −.39) - Reduced efficacy shows the largest negative correlation with academic achievement (rc+ = −.39)
• Reduced engagement with GenAI feedback functionalities was attributed to a mismatch between GenAI outputs and student expectations - Reduced engagement with GenAI feedback functionalities was attributed to a mismatch between GenAI outputs and student expectations
• Reduced enrollments affected nearly all redesigned principal preparation programs, with uneven recovery across programs - Reduced enrollments affected nearly all redesigned principal preparation programs, with uneven recovery across programs
• Reduced suspension use was associated with increased attendance of roughly one additional day per year per student, rising to about three days in schools serving predominantly Black students - Reduced suspension use was associated with increased attendance of roughly one additional day per year per student, rising to about three days in schools serving predominantly Black students
• Reducing EF demands benefits struggling learners, whereas calibrated EF challenge is hypothesised to benefit beginning learners - Reducing EF demands benefits struggling learners, whereas calibrated EF challenge is hypothesised to benefit beginning learners
• Reducing extraneous cognitive load is not a significant moderator of drawing support effects on comprehension - Reducing extraneous cognitive load is not a significant moderator of drawing support effects on comprehension
• Reducing extraneous load can also remove affordances for germane processes - Reducing extraneous load can also remove affordances for germane processes
• Reducing Math Agent output and disabling it for non-math courses reduced latency and increased behavioral engagement - Reducing Math Agent output and disabling it for non-math courses reduced latency and increased behavioral engagement
• Reducing student density in classrooms and shared school spaces, combined with precautions such as physical distancing, some mask wearing, and good ventilation, allows for a safer school reopening during COVID-19 - Reducing student density in classrooms and shared school spaces, combined with precautions such as physical distancing, some mask wearing, and good ventilation, allows for a safer school reopening dur
• Reducing the number of children in a presentation and letting them describe similarities and differences made children's knowledge visible to the teacher - Reducing the number of children in a presentation and letting them describe similarities and differences made children's knowledge visible to the teacher
• Reduction of cognitive load can sometimes impair learning rather than enhance it - Reduction of cognitive load can sometimes impair learning rather than enhance it
• Redundancy effect: when one source of information is intelligible in isolation, physically integrating it with another source fails to help and eliminating the redundant source facilitates learning - Redundancy effect: when one source of information is intelligible in isolation, physically integrating it with another source fails to help and eliminating the redundant source facilitates learning
• Redundancy principle: animation plus narration beats animation, narration, and on-screen text for transfer - Redundancy principle: animation plus narration beats animation, narration, and on-screen text for transfer
• Redundant and decorative elements, including emotional design embellishments, can enhance learning despite constituting potential extraneous load - Redundant and decorative elements, including emotional design embellishments, can enhance learning despite constituting potential extraneous load
• Redundant on-screen text impairs learning when it competes with a visualization, though written text duplicating narration alone can help
• Redundant speech-gesture cooperation improves recall and social perception more than complementarity - Redundant speech-gesture cooperation improves recall and social perception more than complementarity
• Redundant text in the diagram did not affect posttest accuracy or difficulty ratings - Redundant text in the diagram did not affect posttest accuracy or difficulty ratings
• References to document sources showed a significant sequence-type by position interaction, driven by first-position texts in the HT-LT sequence; the hypothesized increase in mixed sequences was only partly supported - References to document sources showed a significant sequence-type by position interaction, driven by first-position texts in the HT-LT sequence; the hypothesized increase in mixed sequences was only p
• References to the embedded source did not differ by sequence type, ranging from 17.6% to 35% across conditions - References to the embedded source did not differ by sequence type, ranging from 17.6% to 35% across conditions
• Refinement gains stabilize or decline beyond three iterations, and beam-size gains become negligible beyond two samples - Refinement gains stabilize or decline beyond three iterations, and beam-size gains become negligible beyond two samples
• Reflected case-based training combined with explicit strategy instruction and adaptive tutoring yields the best transfer performance, whereas strategy instruction without tutoring adds no benefit over case-based training alone - Reflected case-based training combined with explicit strategy instruction and adaptive tutoring yields the best transfer performance, whereas strategy instruction without tutoring adds no benefit over
• Reflecting with the 3D manipulable animation made Session #3 reflective discussions more student-centered than reflecting with video only - Reflecting with the 3D manipulable animation made Session #3 reflective discussions more student-centered than reflecting with video only
• Reflection improves correspondence between perceived and behavioral reliance on ChatGPT - Reflection improves correspondence between perceived and behavioral reliance on ChatGPT
• Reflection increased in the adaptable and non-adaptable script conditions, but only the adaptable script had positive effects on monitoring, supporting overall positive effects on self-regulation - Reflection increased in the adaptable and non-adaptable script conditions, but only the adaptable script had positive effects on monitoring, supporting overall positive effects on self-regulation
• Reflection interventions in higher education have a medium positive average effect on learning that varies with duration, peer interaction and the reflective activity used
• Reflection on a prediction failure shifted students' isomorphism awareness from structural recognition to boundary awareness - Reflection on a prediction failure shifted students' isomorphism awareness from structural recognition to boundary awareness
• Reflection produced selective rather than blanket rejection of AI: alignment with correct advice stayed high while alignment with incorrect advice dropped - Reflection produced selective rather than blanket rejection of AI: alignment with correct advice stayed high while alignment with incorrect advice dropped
• Reflection prompts combined with tutor feedback had positive effects on the development of students' self-regulated learning competence - Reflection prompts combined with tutor feedback had positive effects on the development of students' self-regulated learning competence
• Reflection with AI as a cognitive partner demands time and cognitive effort, countering concerns that students use AI merely to outsource cognitive tasks - Reflection with AI as a cognitive partner demands time and cognitive effort, countering concerns that students use AI merely to outsource cognitive tasks
• Reflective AI use predicts programming self-efficacy and engagement, while PSE does not predict engagement (survey SEM) - Reflective AI use predicts programming self-efficacy and engagement, while PSE does not predict engagement (survey SEM)
• Reflective and hybrid feedback outperform direct GenAI feedback on delayed AI-free transfer - Reflective and hybrid feedback outperform direct GenAI feedback on delayed AI-free transfer
• Reflective behavior and learning motivation each significantly predict oral proficiency improvement in ASR-assisted instruction - Reflective behavior and learning motivation each significantly predict oral proficiency improvement in ASR-assisted instruction
• Reflective capacity is regarded by many as an essential characteristic of professional competence in the health professions - Reflective capacity is regarded by many as an essential characteristic of professional competence in the health professions
• Reflective judgment scores increased consistently with age and educational level - Reflective judgment scores increased consistently with age and educational level
• Reflective methods carry inherent dangers of overanalysis and of becoming ends rather than means, and can go wrong - Reflective methods carry inherent dangers of overanalysis and of becoming ends rather than means, and can go wrong
• Reflective methods must be internalized as habit to operate in everyday moral choice, and internalization depends on supportive social arrangements - Reflective methods must be internalized as habit to operate in everyday moral choice, and internalization depends on supportive social arrangements
• Reflective modeling of formative knowledge constructs risks misrepresenting domain knowledge as a general factor such as intelligence - Reflective modeling of formative knowledge constructs risks misrepresenting domain knowledge as a general factor such as intelligence
• Reflective Practice Improves Outcomes When Structured
• Reflective practice yields deeper understanding of teachers' own teaching style and greater classroom effectiveness - Reflective practice yields deeper understanding of teachers' own teaching style and greater classroom effectiveness
• Reflective strategies such as cognitive forcing, pre-commitment, and uncertainty communication reduce overreliance on AI and improve decision quality, but have been evaluated only as short-term single-session interventions - Reflective strategies such as cognitive forcing, pre-commitment, and uncertainty communication reduce overreliance on AI and improve decision quality, but have been evaluated only as short-term single
• Reflective thinking dimensions correlate positively with learning process/expert knowledge, and most correlate positively with learning effort and negatively with innate/fixed ability and certainty of knowledge - Reflective thinking dimensions correlate positively with learning process/expert knowledge, and most correlate positively with learning effort and negatively with innate/fixed ability and certainty of
• Reflective thinking moderates the direct GenAI use–critical thinking path: positive at low reflectivity, non-significant at high reflectivity - Reflective thinking moderates the direct GenAI use–critical thinking path: positive at low reflectivity, non-significant at high reflectivity
• Reflexive noticing shifts teacher discourse from stabilization to possibility, while surprises alone often re-stabilize it
• Reflexivity, perspective taking, analogical reasoning, and tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty each positively relate to knowledge integration in inter- and transdisciplinary work - Reflexivity, perspective taking, analogical reasoning, and tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty each positively relate to knowledge integration in inter- and transdisciplinary work