Claims: P 4

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• Preparation-purpose homework benefits students more than same-day extra-time homework - Preparation-purpose homework benefits students more than same-day extra-time homework
• Preparatory-period baseline activity before the antisaccade stimulus is higher and ramps faster in adult monkeys and predicts correct trials - Preparatory-period baseline activity before the antisaccade stimulus is higher and ramps faster in adult monkeys and predicts correct trials
• Preparing for oral assessments changes student study habits toward understanding over memorization - Preparing for oral assessments changes student study habits toward understanding over memorization
• Prephonological spellers do not show the syllable-length signature predicted by the hypothesized syllabic stage - Prephonological spellers do not show the syllable-length signature predicted by the hypothesized syllabic stage
• Prephonological spellers produce letter strings that statistically resemble the writing of their language rather than random strings - Prephonological spellers produce letter strings that statistically resemble the writing of their language rather than random strings
• Prepolicy retained students dropped out earlier, but postpolicy retained students showed elevated dropout risk throughout their remaining years rather than at early ages - Prepolicy retained students dropped out earlier, but postpolicy retained students showed elevated dropout risk throughout their remaining years rather than at early ages
• Preprocessing bias mitigation (DIR, RW, SUP) reduced subgroup disparities in TPR on OULAD, with effectiveness varying by demographic attribute - Preprocessing bias mitigation (DIR, RW, SUP) reduced subgroup disparities in TPR on OULAD, with effectiveness varying by demographic attribute
• Preschool attendees exhibit less optimal social skills at kindergarten entry, persisting through first grade only - Preschool attendees exhibit less optimal social skills at kindergarten entry, persisting through first grade only
• Preschool attendees outperform informal-care peers on academic achievement from kindergarten through early adolescence - Preschool attendees outperform informal-care peers on academic achievement from kindergarten through early adolescence
• Preschool attendees show higher externalizing behavior that persists at reduced levels through fifth grade - Preschool attendees show higher externalizing behavior that persists at reduced levels through fifth grade
• Preschool block play complexity predicts later mathematics achievement, with relationships emerging by seventh grade - Preschool block play complexity predicts later mathematics achievement, with relationships emerging by seventh grade
• Preschool children benefit from repetition in free recall, recalling repeated pictures better than once-presented ones - Preschool children benefit from repetition in free recall, recalling repeated pictures better than once-presented ones
• Preschool children demonstrate behavioral knowledge of classification, one-to-one correspondence, and seriation during everyday free play with everyday materials - Preschool children demonstrate behavioral knowledge of classification, one-to-one correspondence, and seriation during everyday free play with everyday materials
• Preschool children do not exhibit a spacing effect in free recall, although they benefit from repetition - Preschool children do not exhibit a spacing effect in free recall, although they benefit from repetition
• Preschool children seriated pinecones by size largely by trial and error, and seriating in reverse order was more challenging and needed extensive verbal cueing - Preschool children seriated pinecones by size largely by trial and error, and seriating in reverse order was more challenging and needed extensive verbal cueing
• Preschool children who pass both EF and TOM tests score significantly higher on semantic fluency than children who fail both - Preschool children who pass both EF and TOM tests score significantly higher on semantic fluency than children who fail both
• Preschool classrooms in the validation sample scored lowest on Instructional Support relative to Emotional Support and Classroom Organization - Preschool classrooms in the validation sample scored lowest on Instructional Support relative to Emotional Support and Classroom Organization
• Preschool counting and cardinality competencies are the strongest predictors of fifth grade mathematics achievement among the measured preschool domains - Preschool counting and cardinality competencies are the strongest predictors of fifth grade mathematics achievement among the measured preschool domains
• Preschool counting skills and number knowledge directly predict formal arithmetic skills in primary school, together accounting for 40–46% of variance - Preschool counting skills and number knowledge directly predict formal arithmetic skills in primary school, together accounting for 40–46% of variance
• Preschool emergent writing skills are best described by three correlated but distinct factors: Conceptual Knowledge, Procedural Knowledge, and Generative Knowledge - Preschool emergent writing skills are best described by three correlated but distinct factors: Conceptual Knowledge, Procedural Knowledge, and Generative Knowledge
• Preschool emotion knowledge predicts kindergarten academic achievement one year later - Preschool emotion knowledge predicts kindergarten academic achievement one year later
• Preschool executive function positively predicts kindergarten math on both measures, while teacher–child relationship quality shows only a trend-level main effect on ECLS-K Math and none on Applied Problems - Preschool executive function positively predicts kindergarten math on both measures, while teacher–child relationship quality shows only a trend-level main effect on ECLS-K Math and none on Applied Pr
• Preschool executive functions robustly predict mathematical skills during preschool and later in development - Preschool executive functions robustly predict mathematical skills during preschool and later in development
• Preschool math ability significantly predicts kindergarten math ability on both the ECLS-K Math battery and the Applied Problems subtest - Preschool math ability significantly predicts kindergarten math ability on both the ECLS-K Math battery and the Applied Problems subtest
• Preschool neurophysiological assessment predicts performance on phonological processing, rapid naming, sentence memory, sight word reading, spelling, and composite reading one year later - Preschool neurophysiological assessment predicts performance on phonological processing, rapid naming, sentence memory, sight word reading, spelling, and composite reading one year later
• Preschool one- and two-knowers perform at least 0.5 SDs lower on the kindergarten number sets test than early cardinal-principle knowers - Preschool one- and two-knowers perform at least 0.5 SDs lower on the kindergarten number sets test than early cardinal-principle knowers
• Preschool PATHS increases emotion knowledge and parent- and teacher-rated social competence in Head Start children - Preschool PATHS increases emotion knowledge and parent- and teacher-rated social competence in Head Start children
• Preschool teachers both over- and underestimate children's pre-academic abilities relative to objective assessment, with substantial numbers of children discrepant in each direction - Preschool teachers both over- and underestimate children's pre-academic abilities relative to objective assessment, with substantial numbers of children discrepant in each direction
• Preschool teachers' median hourly wage is more than $18 lower than kindergarten teachers' median hourly wage - Preschool teachers' median hourly wage is more than $18 lower than kindergarten teachers' median hourly wage
• Preschool teachers' perceptions of children's academic abilities were not associated with child gender or race/ethnicity - Preschool teachers' perceptions of children's academic abilities were not associated with child gender or race/ethnicity
• Preschool working memory–flexibility predicts later math achievement, especially in Grade 3 - Preschool working memory–flexibility predicts later math achievement, especially in Grade 3
• Preschoolers constrain exploration after direct instruction and after overhearing instruction to another child, but not after overhearing instruction to an adult or a non-pedagogical intentional action - Preschoolers constrain exploration after direct instruction and after overhearing instruction to another child, but not after overhearing instruction to an adult or a non-pedagogical intentional actio
• Preschoolers given a pedagogical demonstration of a toy function play for less time than children in interrupted, naive, or baseline conditions - Preschoolers given a pedagogical demonstration of a toy function play for less time than children in interrupted, naive, or baseline conditions
• Preschoolers in a multiliteracies folk-tale program showed increased critical-thinking behaviors in qualitative journal data - Preschoolers in a multiliteracies folk-tale program showed increased critical-thinking behaviors in qualitative journal data
• Preschoolers make probabilistic backward-blocking causal inferences, with capacities appearing by 18 months - Preschoolers make probabilistic backward-blocking causal inferences, with capacities appearing by 18 months
• Preschoolers recognize action possibilities (affordances) that allow them to isolate variables when there is information to be gained - Preschoolers recognize action possibilities (affordances) that allow them to isolate variables when there is information to be gained
• Preschoolers severely underestimated by their teachers showed weaker fall-to-spring academic skill growth, significant for language and pre-literacy but not for math - Preschoolers severely underestimated by their teachers showed weaker fall-to-spring academic skill growth, significant for language and pre-literacy but not for math
• Preschoolers' ANS task performance follows Weber's Law: accuracy decreases as numerical ratio approaches equality, and improves with age over six months - Preschoolers' ANS task performance follows Weber's Law: accuracy decreases as numerical ratio approaches equality, and improves with age over six months
• Preschoolers' cardinal knowledge predicts fluent processing of symbolic and nonsymbolic magnitudes on the kindergarten number sets test two years later - Preschoolers' cardinal knowledge predicts fluent processing of symbolic and nonsymbolic magnitudes on the kindergarten number sets test two years later
• Preschoolers' implicit understanding of arithmetic (nonverbal calculation) predicts later number sets fluency above and beyond cardinal knowledge - Preschoolers' implicit understanding of arithmetic (nonverbal calculation) predicts later number sets fluency above and beyond cardinal knowledge
• Preschoolers' recall of repeated items exceeds the maximum predicted by encoding variability theories assuming independent encodings - Preschoolers' recall of repeated items exceeds the maximum predicted by encoding variability theories assuming independent encodings
• Preschoolers' social skills are related to preliteracy, language, and mathematics development controlling for attention and aggression problems - Preschoolers' social skills are related to preliteracy, language, and mathematics development controlling for attention and aggression problems
• Preschoolers' writing and writing-related skills increase significantly between ages 3 and 5 on letter, name, and CVC word tasks - Preschoolers' writing and writing-related skills increase significantly between ages 3 and 5 on letter, name, and CVC word tasks
• Prescriptives that lead the child's attention did not correlate significantly with productive vocabulary - Prescriptives that lead the child's attention did not correlate significantly with productive vocabulary
• Preselection of grammar points in proactive FOF reduced learners' repetition and fossilization of erroneous forms - Preselection of grammar points in proactive FOF reduced learners' repetition and fossilization of erroneous forms
• Presence versus absence of individual scaffolding types did not support the added-value hypothesis, but scaffolding combinations partly did - Presence versus absence of individual scaffolding types did not support the added-value hypothesis, but scaffolding combinations partly did
• Presentation condition does not differentially affect microstructure comprehension over five weeks, though VNT and NT groups improved while the text-only group did not - Presentation condition does not differentially affect microstructure comprehension over five weeks, though VNT and NT groups improved while the text-only group did not
• Presentation format (sequential vs. simultaneous) does not reliably affect EOL accuracy - Presentation format (sequential vs.
• Presentation pacing moderates the modality effect: large under system-paced conditions and not significant under self-paced conditions, where it may disappear or reverse - Presentation pacing moderates the modality effect: large under system-paced conditions and not significant under self-paced conditions, where it may disappear or reverse
• Presentation software adoption rose even though it was modeled by instructors rather than directly taught - Presentation software adoption rose even though it was modeled by instructors rather than directly taught
• Presentation technologies such as paper posters and PowerPoint mediate the sharing of ways of seeing in design studio critique sessions - Presentation technologies such as paper posters and PowerPoint mediate the sharing of ways of seeing in design studio critique sessions
• Presenting multiple cases from different perspectives supports transfer in ill-structured domains
• Presenting primary knowledge first and then secondary knowledge was more efficient in both performance and motivation - Presenting primary knowledge first and then secondary knowledge was more efficient in both performance and motivation
• Presenting principles before case comparison yields higher germane load and lower extraneous load than presenting them after - Presenting principles before case comparison yields higher germane load and lower extraneous load than presenting them after
• Presenting prototypes to community partners created a sense of accountability among students that extended beyond grading - Presenting prototypes to community partners created a sense of accountability among students that extended beyond grading
• Presenting related material contiguously in space and time yields large learning benefits - Presenting related material contiguously in space and time yields large learning benefits
• Presenting the '+' sign 150 ms before operands speeds up addition problem solving in expert older adults, replicating the effect found in young adults - Presenting the '+' sign 150 ms before operands speeds up addition problem solving in expert older adults, replicating the effect found in young adults
• Presenting words as spoken narration rather than on-screen text alongside graphics improves learning
• Presenting young children with vast numbers of discrete sense impressions would not augment the natural development of intelligence - Presenting young children with vast numbers of discrete sense impressions would not augment the natural development of intelligence
• Preservation of the mother tongue predicts second-language achievement among migrant children - Preservation of the mother tongue predicts second-language achievement among migrant children
• Preservice candidates pass teaching performance assessments at higher rates than intern candidates - Preservice candidates pass teaching performance assessments at higher rates than intern candidates
• Preservice educators rate generative AI highest for logistical support (time saving, clarity, organizing thought) and lowest for epistemic trust, accuracy and consistency - Preservice educators rate generative AI highest for logistical support (time saving, clarity, organizing thought) and lowest for epistemic trust, accuracy and consistency
• Preservice elementary science teachers who completed the argumentation training programme made significant pre-to-post gains across the three argument elements and overall argumentative performance - Preservice elementary science teachers who completed the argumentation training programme made significant pre-to-post gains across the three argument elements and overall argumentative performance
• Preservice science teachers exposed to explicit reading strategy instruction showed the highest diversity and frequency of cognitive strategy use while reading a science text - Preservice science teachers exposed to explicit reading strategy instruction showed the highest diversity and frequency of cognitive strategy use while reading a science text
• Preservice special educators in the 2008 cohort showed significant pretest-to-posttest knowledge gains after the 6-week co-taught literacy unit - Preservice special educators in the 2008 cohort showed significant pretest-to-posttest knowledge gains after the 6-week co-taught literacy unit
• Preservice special educators in the 2009 cohort showed significant pretest-to-posttest knowledge gains, with instruction replicated consistently across years - Preservice special educators in the 2009 cohort showed significant pretest-to-posttest knowledge gains, with instruction replicated consistently across years
• Preservice teachers became more likely to notice the absence of students building on each other's ideas and marginally more likely to notice open-ended questions - Preservice teachers became more likely to notice the absence of students building on each other's ideas and marginally more likely to notice open-ended questions
• Preservice teachers chose the easy video significantly more often for an ethnic minority student than for an ethnic majority student, all other information being equal - Preservice teachers chose the easy video significantly more often for an ethnic minority student than for an ethnic majority student, all other information being equal
• Preservice teachers judged the ethnic minority student more negatively than the ethnic majority student on parental support, achievement, and working behavior - Preservice teachers judged the ethnic minority student more negatively than the ethnic majority student on parental support, achievement, and working behavior
• Preservice teachers moved directly from attending to shaping more often than from attending to interpreting, and attending–interpreting links remained comparatively weak - Preservice teachers moved directly from attending to shaping more often than from attending to interpreting, and attending–interpreting links remained comparatively weak
• Preservice teachers rated the video as simpler and more superficial than the text with the same content - Preservice teachers rated the video as simpler and more superficial than the text with the same content
• Preservice teachers report higher self-efficacy for inclusive education than in-service teachers - Preservice teachers report higher self-efficacy for inclusive education than in-service teachers
• Preservice teachers tend to rely more on informal help sources than formal ones during training - Preservice teachers tend to rely more on informal help sources than formal ones during training
• Preservice teachers with placements promoting successful constructivist science teaching were more likely to report evaluativist personal epistemologies - Preservice teachers with placements promoting successful constructivist science teaching were more likely to report evaluativist personal epistemologies
• Preservice teachers' epistemological beliefs differ significantly by learning style in all four dimensions - Preservice teachers' epistemological beliefs differ significantly by learning style in all four dimensions
• Preservice teachers' interpreting and shaping dimensions show the strongest co-occurrence across all three weeks of AI-based simulation interactions - Preservice teachers' interpreting and shaping dimensions show the strongest co-occurrence across all three weeks of AI-based simulation interactions
• Preservice teachers' reflective thinking tendencies differ statistically by learning style in all seven dimensions - Preservice teachers' reflective thinking tendencies differ statistically by learning style in all seven dimensions
• Preserving a bilingual student's heritage language supports rather than hinders English acquisition
• Preserving book-level document structure during mid-training improves downstream performance beyond identical content split into sections (+1.02 mean) - Preserving book-level document structure during mid-training improves downstream performance beyond identical content split into sections (+1.02 mean)
• Pressure templates mostly elicit their intended sycophancy subtypes, with limited but non-zero cross-mode leakage - Pressure templates mostly elicit their intended sycophancy subtypes, with limited but non-zero cross-mode leakage
• Pretend play is positively related to social competence in children aged 3–8, with a small overall effect size - Pretend play is positively related to social competence in children aged 3–8, with a small overall effect size
• Pretest accuracy moderated the training effect for typical full-fledged arguments: students with high pretest scores benefited most - Pretest accuracy moderated the training effect for typical full-fledged arguments: students with high pretest scores benefited most
• Pretest performance and average math grade correlate with conceptual knowledge but not procedural knowledge posttest scores - Pretest performance and average math grade correlate with conceptual knowledge but not procedural knowledge posttest scores
• Pretest scores significantly predict posttest scores across CF types and outcome measures - Pretest scores significantly predict posttest scores across CF types and outcome measures
• Pretest, attendance, and EB status showed distinct covariate effects on specific literacy outcomes - Pretest, attendance, and EB status showed distinct covariate effects on specific literacy outcomes
• Pretest-posttest correlation coefficients for state assessment data vary by student achievement level (low-performing, average-performing, proficient). - Pretest-posttest correlation coefficients for state assessment data vary by student achievement level (low-performing, average-performing, proficient).
• Pretesting before instruction enhances learning of subsequently presented material even when pretest answers are wrong, with multiple-choice pretesting more effective than cued-recall pretesting - Pretesting before instruction enhances learning of subsequently presented material even when pretest answers are wrong, with multiple-choice pretesting more effective than cued-recall pretesting
• Pretesting benefits for paired associates depend on semantic association between pair members, with cued-recall benefits absent for unrelated pairs - Pretesting benefits for paired associates depend on semantic association between pair members, with cued-recall benefits absent for unrelated pairs
• Pretesting enhances learning
• Pretraining learners on a system's key parts and terms before the main lesson improved knowledge and real-world transfer in one VR experiment, and is reported second-hand to improve learning in multimedia studies
• Pretraining principle: pre-lessons on names, locations, and characteristics of key components improve transfer - Pretraining principle: pre-lessons on names, locations, and characteristics of key components improve transfer
• Prevalence of decreased intrinsic academic motivation is approximately twice as high in junior high as in elementary students - Prevalence of decreased intrinsic academic motivation is approximately twice as high in junior high as in elementary students
• Prevalence of sustained shared thinking in preschool settings predicts children's outcomes on academic and social-behavioral measures - Prevalence of sustained shared thinking in preschool settings predicts children's outcomes on academic and social-behavioral measures
• Previous academic performance is the strongest predictor of university GPA, and adding cognitive predictors raises explained variance to about 44–50% - Previous academic performance is the strongest predictor of university GPA, and adding cognitive predictors raises explained variance to about 44–50%
• Previous domain knowledge accounts for most of the variance in later achievement, considerably reducing the predictive impact of IQ and WM - Previous domain knowledge accounts for most of the variance in later achievement, considerably reducing the predictive impact of IQ and WM
• Previous domain knowledge did not affect e-learning text comprehension, directly or as a moderator - Previous domain knowledge did not affect e-learning text comprehension, directly or as a moderator
• Previous dyslexia training and confidence predict teachers' dyslexia knowledge, but years of experience do not - Previous dyslexia training and confidence predict teachers' dyslexia knowledge, but years of experience do not
• Previous night's sleep quality and time in bed predict children's morning working memory performance fluctuations - Previous night's sleep quality and time in bed predict children's morning working memory performance fluctuations
• Previous research found a meaningful correlation between countries' mean engagement and mean performance on large-scale international assessments, motivating validity questions about aggregated scores - Previous research found a meaningful correlation between countries' mean engagement and mean performance on large-scale international assessments, motivating validity questions about aggregated scores
• Previous research on authentic learning lacks clear definitions and operationalizations of authentic learning - Previous research on authentic learning lacks clear definitions and operationalizations of authentic learning
• Previously identified effects in single digit multiplication, including the problem size effect and the tie effect, replicate in an integrated item-difficulty analysis. - Previously identified effects in single digit multiplication, including the problem size effect and the tie effect, replicate in an integrated item-difficulty analysis.
• Pre–post scaffolding gains are highest among college- and graduate-level learners (ḡ = 1.16 and ḡ = 1.2), with secondary education an exception - Pre–post scaffolding gains are highest among college- and graduate-level learners (ḡ = 1.16 and ḡ = 1.2), with secondary education an exception
• Primary barriers to infusing 21st century skills are psychological, political, and cultural rather than conceptual, technical, or economic - Primary barriers to infusing 21st century skills are psychological, political, and cultural rather than conceptual, technical, or economic
• Primary four students taught with a variation-theory-designed lesson were far more likely to give a correct, properly explained answer about 'equal shares' in fractions than comparison-group students - Primary four students taught with a variation-theory-designed lesson were far more likely to give a correct, properly explained answer about 'equal shares' in fractions than comparison-group students
• Primary knowledge content favored learners' involvement and persistence in the training phase regardless of their personal characteristics, unlike secondary knowledge - Primary knowledge content favored learners' involvement and persistence in the training phase regardless of their personal characteristics, unlike secondary knowledge
• Primary mathematics teachers rate post-generation control significantly higher than pre- and mid-generation control on perceived numerical correctness of generated visuals - Primary mathematics teachers rate post-generation control significantly higher than pre- and mid-generation control on perceived numerical correctness of generated visuals
• Primary metrics improved during US holidays, attributed to more motivated voluntary users - Primary metrics improved during US holidays, attributed to more motivated voluntary users
• Primary school children improved execution of movement features but showed no improvement in javelin throwing distance across all conditions - Primary school children improved execution of movement features but showed no improvement in javelin throwing distance across all conditions
• Primary school children's multiplication ability falls into three groups: single digit problem solvers, multidigit problem solvers, and high performers. - Primary school children's multiplication ability falls into three groups: single digit problem solvers, multidigit problem solvers, and high performers.
• Primary school students aged 9–12 perceive a sense of agency—choice over content, personalization, self-directed performance, and task completion—as a core element of fun in learning - Primary school students aged 9–12 perceive a sense of agency—choice over content, personalization, self-directed performance, and task completion—as a core element of fun in learning
• Primary school students show no awareness of their monitoring judgment accuracy before self-scoring in mathematics problem solving - Primary school students show no awareness of their monitoring judgment accuracy before self-scoring in mathematics problem solving
• Primary school teachers report moderately positive overall perceptions of AI in mathematics instruction, with willingness and attitudes higher than personal experience - Primary school teachers report moderately positive overall perceptions of AI in mathematics instruction, with willingness and attitudes higher than personal experience
• Primary students' wiki negotiation contains collaboration and reasoning keywords distributed throughout the interaction - Primary students' wiki negotiation contains collaboration and reasoning keywords distributed throughout the interaction
• Primary studies report possible benefits of GenAI for children's divergent thinking, narrative creativity and creative self-efficacy, without confirmed efficacy - Primary studies report possible benefits of GenAI for children's divergent thinking, narrative creativity and creative self-efficacy, without confirmed efficacy
• Primary task accuracy is higher in the info-seeking condition than in the explicit reports and wagering conditions - Primary task accuracy is higher in the info-seeking condition than in the explicit reports and wagering conditions
• Primary teachers who participated in the iSELF professional development program showed significantly higher explicit SRL strategy instruction at post-test than control teachers - Primary teachers who participated in the iSELF professional development program showed significantly higher explicit SRL strategy instruction at post-test than control teachers
• Primary-language (Spanish) oral instructions yielded significantly higher English reading comprehension than English-only instructions - Primary-language (Spanish) oral instructions yielded significantly higher English reading comprehension than English-only instructions
• Priming human shadows as math lovers or haters shifts LLM emotional tone about mathematics - Priming human shadows as math lovers or haters shifts LLM emotional tone about mathematics
• Principal burnout is negatively related to job satisfaction and self-efficacy and co-occurs with stress - Principal burnout is negatively related to job satisfaction and self-efficacy and co-occurs with stress
• Principal effects on student achievement are largely indirect, mediated through school organizational processes - Principal effects on student achievement are largely indirect, mediated through school organizational processes
• Principal leadership regard is nearly unanimous in top quartile schools but low for about 40 percent of teachers in bottom quartile schools - Principal leadership regard is nearly unanimous in top quartile schools but low for about 40 percent of teachers in bottom quartile schools
• Principal leadership, school orientation toward innovation, and teacher professional community promote professional development quality, with mutual reinforcement - Principal leadership, school orientation toward innovation, and teacher professional community promote professional development quality, with mutual reinforcement
• Principal practice instrument ratings and school median student growth percentiles showed moderate to high year-to-year stability, but growth percentiles changed more across years in smaller schools - Principal practice instrument ratings and school median student growth percentiles showed moderate to high year-to-year stability, but growth percentiles changed more across years in smaller schools
• Principal practice ratings varied across the score range in New Jersey's pilot year, but most principals received ratings of effective or highly effective - Principal practice ratings varied across the score range in New Jersey's pilot year, but most principals received ratings of effective or highly effective
• Principal supervisor roles in PSI districts differed from other urban districts in key ways while supervisors' work with principals showed important similarities - Principal supervisor roles in PSI districts differed from other urban districts in key ways while supervisors' work with principals showed important similarities
• Principal supervisors in PSI and other urban districts reported similar perceptions of central office support and structures - Principal supervisors in PSI and other urban districts reported similar perceptions of central office support and structures
• Principal supervisors in PSI districts supervised fewer principals than those in other urban districts - Principal supervisors in PSI districts supervised fewer principals than those in other urban districts
• Principal support for Grow predicts teacher Grow use above and beyond teacher demographics and technology factors - Principal support for Grow predicts teacher Grow use above and beyond teacher demographics and technology factors
• Principal turnover is associated with lower student achievement, worse climate, and higher teacher attrition, with effects lasting up to 5 years - Principal turnover is associated with lower student achievement, worse climate, and higher teacher attrition, with effects lasting up to 5 years
• Principal turnover is common: 18% of principals leave schools each year and half of new principals leave within three years, with cascading consequences - Principal turnover is common: 18% of principals leave schools each year and half of new principals leave within three years, with cascading consequences
• Principal turnover often has negative effects on student achievement, teacher retention, and school culture unless a much more effective principal replaces the prior one - Principal turnover often has negative effects on student achievement, teacher retention, and school culture unless a much more effective principal replaces the prior one
• Principal- and teacher-reported intercultural predictors show negligible associations with student psychosocial outcomes - Principal- and teacher-reported intercultural predictors show negligible associations with student psychosocial outcomes
• Principal-teacher conferences were perceived as more reflective and objective than past evaluations, but many principals lacked the instructional coaching skills for deep discussions of practice - Principal-teacher conferences were perceived as more reflective and objective than past evaluations, but many principals lacked the instructional coaching skills for deep discussions of practice
• Principals actively engaged in prioritizing math at their sites were more likely to organize teacher learning time and involve coaches - Principals actively engaged in prioritizing math at their sites were more likely to organize teacher learning time and involve coaches
• Principals and teachers increasingly agree that school and district support for TPE implementation is helpful, with principals more positive than teachers - Principals and teachers increasingly agree that school and district support for TPE implementation is helpful, with principals more positive than teachers
• Principals and teachers report needing more support in areas such as analyzing student data and using assessments to measure growth - Principals and teachers report needing more support in areas such as analyzing student data and using assessments to measure growth
• Principals and trained external observers gave aggregate-consistent Danielson Framework ratings in matched observations - Principals and trained external observers gave aggregate-consistent Danielson Framework ratings in matched observations
• Principals are essential to student achievement, with principals' effects almost as large as teachers' effects - Principals are essential to student achievement, with principals' effects almost as large as teachers' effects
• Principals are generally more positive about TPE than teachers, but perception gaps are narrowing - Principals are generally more positive about TPE than teachers, but perception gaps are narrowing
• Principals credit LSCs with helping initiate new school-community partnerships, supporting the claim that LSCs build social capital in urban neighborhoods - Principals credit LSCs with helping initiate new school-community partnerships, supporting the claim that LSCs build social capital in urban neighborhoods
• Principals evaluated on school median student growth percentiles were less likely to receive highly effective overall ratings than principals not evaluated on that measure - Principals evaluated on school median student growth percentiles were less likely to receive highly effective overall ratings than principals not evaluated on that measure
• Principals exhibit an incomplete understanding of how achievement growth is captured in EPIC performance measures - Principals exhibit an incomplete understanding of how achievement growth is captured in EPIC performance measures
• Principals expressed somewhat greater concern about retention's negative effects than teachers - Principals expressed somewhat greater concern about retention's negative effects than teachers
• Principals in implementation networks reported moderate school improvement from working with external partners and other network schools, attributed largely to teacher collaboration - Principals in implementation networks reported moderate school improvement from working with external partners and other network schools, attributed largely to teacher collaboration
• Principals in improving schools actively reach out to teachers, parents, and community leaders and coordinate programs strategically - Principals in improving schools actively reach out to teachers, parents, and community leaders and coordinate programs strategically
• Principals in the pilot did not typically use all 22 rubric components when observing teachers - Principals in the pilot did not typically use all 22 rubric components when observing teachers
• Principals inflated ratings at the high end of the scale, more often identifying instruction as distinguished than observers - Principals inflated ratings at the high end of the scale, more often identifying instruction as distinguished than observers
• Principals most commonly cited time for teacher planning, difficulty removing poor teachers, community social problems, apathetic parents, test-score pressure, and problem students as roadblocks - Principals most commonly cited time for teacher planning, difficulty removing poor teachers, community social problems, apathetic parents, test-score pressure, and problem students as roadblocks
• Principals of the paradigm-shift type reported high buy-in and a paradigm shift, and their reported influence on instructional grouping, assessment, planning, and general instructional practice was rated high - Principals of the paradigm-shift type reported high buy-in and a paradigm shift, and their reported influence on instructional grouping, assessment, planning, and general instructional practice was ra
• Principals prefer school-level performance and achievement growth over teacher-level performance alone or test-score levels for incentive awards - Principals prefer school-level performance and achievement growth over teacher-level performance alone or test-score levels for incentive awards
• Principals rated board-certified teachers higher than other experienced teachers on seven competence areas, most often 'extraordinary' - Principals rated board-certified teachers higher than other experienced teachers on seven competence areas, most often 'extraordinary'
• Principals rated some instruction components inconsistently, rating communicating with students, using assessment in instruction, and organizing physical space lower than observers, and student engagement higher - Principals rated some instruction components inconsistently, rating communicating with students, using assessment in instruction, and organizing physical space lower than observers, and student engage
• Principals rated teaching practice reliably at the low and middle ends of the rating scale, and most principals' severity matched trained observers - Principals rated teaching practice reliably at the low and middle ends of the rating scale, and most principals' severity matched trained observers
• Principals were far more likely than trained external observers to rate the same instruction Distinguished rather than Proficient - Principals were far more likely than trained external observers to rate the same instruction Distinguished rather than Proficient
• Principals with access to high-quality professional learning opportunities are more likely to stay in the profession - Principals with access to high-quality professional learning opportunities are more likely to stay in the profession
• Principals with elementary school teaching experience reported providing more extensive direct instructional support to teachers - Principals with elementary school teaching experience reported providing more extensive direct instructional support to teachers
• Principals' access to professional development is positively related to student gains in both ELA and mathematics, with the strongest and most consistent relationships in mathematics - Principals' access to professional development is positively related to student gains in both ELA and mathematics, with the strongest and most consistent relationships in mathematics
• Principals' access to professional development is significantly associated with teacher retention and student achievement, with gains greatest for historically underserved students - Principals' access to professional development is significantly associated with teacher retention and student achievement, with gains greatest for historically underserved students
• Principals' attitudes toward and framing of the REACH evaluation system shaped teachers' engagement with the evaluation process - Principals' attitudes toward and framing of the REACH evaluation system shaped teachers' engagement with the evaluation process
• Principals' confidence in leadership skills related to instructional coaching rose from 60 to 95 percent over the pilot year - Principals' confidence in leadership skills related to instructional coaching rose from 60 to 95 percent over the pilot year
• Principals' email communication with teachers and parents expanded substantially by 2005, though most elementary principals still never emailed parents - Principals' email communication with teachers and parents expanded substantially by 2005, though most elementary principals still never emailed parents
• Principals' instructional leadership practices are linked to improved student outcomes, largely through their support for teachers - Principals' instructional leadership practices are linked to improved student outcomes, largely through their support for teachers
• Principals' overall preparation quality is positively and significantly related to teacher retention, with significant components for developing people and meeting needs of diverse learners - Principals' overall preparation quality is positively and significantly related to teacher retention, with significant components for developing people and meeting needs of diverse learners
• Principals' perceptions of their work with their supervisor and of the supervisor's effectiveness improved under the PSI - Principals' perceptions of their work with their supervisor and of the supervisor's effectiveness improved under the PSI
• Principals' positive perceptions of TPE rose 17 to 37 percentage points and teachers' rose 20 to 31 percentage points between 2013 and 2016 - Principals' positive perceptions of TPE rose 17 to 37 percentage points and teachers' rose 20 to 31 percentage points between 2013 and 2016
• Principals' professional development access is positively but not significantly related to teacher retention - Principals' professional development access is positively but not significantly related to teacher retention
• Principles of reason assessment are both subject-neutral and subject-specific - Principles of reason assessment are both subject-neutral and subject-specific
• Printing (sensori-motor) training, but not visual-only training, increases left posterior fusiform activation during letter perception in pre-school children - Printing (sensori-motor) training, but not visual-only training, increases left posterior fusiform activation during letter perception in pre-school children
• Printing training increases letter response in right anterior fusiform but produces no change in right posterior fusiform - Printing training increases letter response in right anterior fusiform but produces no change in right posterior fusiform
• Printing training increases letter-evoked activation in left anterior fusiform gyrus of pre-school children - Printing training increases letter-evoked activation in left anterior fusiform gyrus of pre-school children
• Prior academic self-efficacy and attainment value do not cross-predict each other over the school year - Prior academic self-efficacy and attainment value do not cross-predict each other over the school year
• Prior achievement level affects calculus conceptual understanding, and PTFC outperforms CFC across achievement levels, with no interaction - Prior achievement level affects calculus conceptual understanding, and PTFC outperforms CFC across achievement levels, with no interaction
• Prior achievement, attendance, and suspensions do not explain the gender difference in ninth-grade math grades - Prior achievement, attendance, and suspensions do not explain the gender difference in ninth-grade math grades
• Prior AI education shows no family-wise association with any baseline perception outcome, with at most small effect sizes, under both three-group and two-group codings - Prior AI education shows no family-wise association with any baseline perception outcome, with at most small effect sizes, under both three-group and two-group codings
• Prior AI use carries over: brief AI exposure increases subsequent AI adoption and exacerbates the speedup illusion, while independent exposure does not reduce AI use - Prior AI use carries over: brief AI exposure increases subsequent AI adoption and exacerbates the speedup illusion, while independent exposure does not reduce AI use
• Prior AI-related training is associated with higher perception scores in the overall score and the willingness, attitudes, and personal-experiences dimensions - Prior AI-related training is associated with higher perception scores in the overall score and the willingness, attitudes, and personal-experiences dimensions
• Prior analyses with this sample found no harm to achievement or motivation at the transition to high school, yet retention still raises dropout odds - Prior analyses with this sample found no harm to achievement or motivation at the transition to high school, yet retention still raises dropout odds
• Prior ANN approaches to diagnostic classification produced unstable and unappreciated estimation unless great care was taken - Prior ANN approaches to diagnostic classification produced unstable and unappreciated estimation unless great care was taken
• Prior attainment predicted several dialogue variables in preliminary regression analyses - Prior attainment predicted several dialogue variables in preliminary regression analyses
• Prior biology knowledge predicted new AI knowledge in Lessons 1 and 2 but not in Lessons 3 and 4 - Prior biology knowledge predicted new AI knowledge in Lessons 1 and 2 but not in Lessons 3 and 4
• Prior biology knowledge tentatively moderates material effectiveness: non-STEM students favor narratives, STEM students favor expository texts for recall and understanding - Prior biology knowledge tentatively moderates material effectiveness: non-STEM students favor narratives, STEM students favor expository texts for recall and understanding
• Prior CACI training is associated with more stable, AI-oriented interaction patterns across interpreting stages - Prior CACI training is associated with more stable, AI-oriented interaction patterns across interpreting stages
• Prior categoric studies found teachers correctly classified only about half of students' monitoring orientations - Prior categoric studies found teachers correctly classified only about half of students' monitoring orientations
• Prior CBLEs for programming education have mostly supported SRL individually while disregarding the social context's influence on regulation - Prior CBLEs for programming education have mostly supported SRL individually while disregarding the social context's influence on regulation
• Prior charter school research shows mixed student achievement results, which the authors attribute to differing policy environments or methodological assumptions across studies - Prior charter school research shows mixed student achievement results, which the authors attribute to differing policy environments or methodological assumptions across studies
• Prior chatbot exposure rather than general technological literacy is associated with willingness to use chatbots - Prior chatbot exposure rather than general technological literacy is associated with willingness to use chatbots
• Prior coding experience correlates positively with digital literacy and coding comfort and negatively with perceived task difficulty - Prior coding experience correlates positively with digital literacy and coding comfort and negatively with perceived task difficulty
• Prior comparative evidence shows small intention–norm and intention–control associations and a TPB model significant in Thailand but not South Africa - Prior comparative evidence shows small intention–norm and intention–control associations and a TPB model significant in Thailand but not South Africa
• Prior conceptual and procedural knowledge did not significantly predict tutors' proportion of knowledge-building responses - Prior conceptual and procedural knowledge did not significantly predict tutors' proportion of knowledge-building responses
• Prior cross-sectional between-group research on the platform found a positive usage–test-score relationship but could not rule out unobserved confounding - Prior cross-sectional between-group research on the platform found a positive usage–test-score relationship but could not rule out unobserved confounding
• Prior difficulty collections mostly lack fine-grained classification of student difficulties - Prior difficulty collections mostly lack fine-grained classification of student difficulties
• Prior digital competence significantly predicts AI literacy after external resources are controlled, adding 3% of variance - Prior digital competence significantly predicts AI literacy after external resources are controlled, adding 3% of variance
• Prior Domain interest predicted interest in the most practical task (Task6, β=.25) and post Domain interest (β=.24), but not Course interest. - Prior Domain interest predicted interest in the most practical task (Task6, β=.25) and post Domain interest (β=.24), but not Course interest.
• Prior epistemic thinking frameworks were insufficient for addressing educational problems because they described epistemic thinking as broad beliefs or perspectives rather than situated practices - Prior epistemic thinking frameworks were insufficient for addressing educational problems because they described epistemic thinking as broad beliefs or perspectives rather than situated practices
• Prior evidence on school entry age lacked causal estimates of growth through early grades - Prior evidence on school entry age lacked causal estimates of growth through early grades
• Prior evidence on whether labels change public perceptions of people with sexual offences is mixed, with some studies finding label effects and others finding none - Prior evidence on whether labels change public perceptions of people with sexual offences is mixed, with some studies finding label effects and others finding none
• Prior experimental housing mobility interventions (Gautreaux Project and Moving to Opportunity) linked moving from higher-poverty to lower-poverty areas with benefits in children's education, behavioral, and health outcomes - Prior experimental housing mobility interventions (Gautreaux Project and Moving to Opportunity) linked moving from higher-poverty to lower-poverty areas with benefits in children's education, behavior
• Prior experimental studies of TFA consistently showed a positive, statistically significant effect on student math achievement but no discernable effect on reading - Prior experimental studies of TFA consistently showed a positive, statistically significant effect on student math achievement but no discernable effect on reading
• Prior experiments report direct placement makes comparison consistently more accurate than impeded placement (d = .49 for shape triplets) - Prior experiments report direct placement makes comparison consistently more accurate than impeded placement (d = .49 for shape triplets)
• Prior field experiments found no achievement differences between staff- and student-tutored groups - Prior field experiments found no achievement differences between staff- and student-tutored groups
• Prior frameworks (SOI, ICAP) explain GLA benefits at the category level but cannot specify how distinct GLAs uniquely contribute to sense-making - Prior frameworks (SOI, ICAP) explain GLA benefits at the category level but cannot specify how distinct GLAs uniquely contribute to sense-making
• Prior gateway course success rates averaged 66 percent with a 14-point gap for students of color - Prior gateway course success rates averaged 66 percent with a 14-point gap for students of color
• Prior genAI access and incentives interact on perceived difficulty of the memory test - Prior genAI access and incentives interact on perceived difficulty of the memory test
• Prior genAI access shows only exploratory evidence of poorer subsequent unaided reasoning, within the no-incentive condition, and no preregistered main effect - Prior genAI access shows only exploratory evidence of poorer subsequent unaided reasoning, within the no-incentive condition, and no preregistered main effect
• Prior genAI use and incentives show no clear effects on later memory retention - Prior genAI use and incentives show no clear effects on later memory retention
• Prior GenAI-solution evaluation showed no significant benefit on exam problems structurally aligned with the homework, with the midterm comparison inconclusive due to a floor effect - Prior GenAI-solution evaluation showed no significant benefit on exam problems structurally aligned with the homework, with the midterm comparison inconclusive due to a floor effect
• Prior HQIM mathematics impact studies show mixed results, with positive effects for Desmos and some Illustrative Mathematics contexts but no significant grade-6 difference - Prior HQIM mathematics impact studies show mixed results, with positive effects for Desmos and some Illustrative Mathematics contexts but no significant grade-6 difference
• Prior knowledge about natural numbers supports students dealing with algebraic properties of rational numbers - Prior knowledge about natural numbers supports students dealing with algebraic properties of rational numbers
• Prior knowledge and epistemic self-efficacy as an evaluator of knowledge are important themes in detecting and efficiently resolving conceptual discrepancies - Prior knowledge and epistemic self-efficacy as an evaluator of knowledge are important themes in detecting and efficiently resolving conceptual discrepancies
• Prior knowledge and intervention condition predict repeated cognitive load and interest measures: prior knowledge lowers effort and difficulty and raises interest and understanding, and prompting groups perceive tasks as more difficult - Prior knowledge and intervention condition predict repeated cognitive load and interest measures: prior knowledge lowers effort and difficulty and raises interest and understanding, and prompting grou
• Prior knowledge and trust calibration moderate GenAI learning effects: fluent output is most persuasive when learners least can challenge it - Prior knowledge and trust calibration moderate GenAI learning effects: fluent output is most persuasive when learners least can challenge it
• Prior knowledge and worked-example type (full vs completion) interact significantly on self-reported germane cognitive load, but not on intrinsic or extraneous load - Prior knowledge and worked-example type (full vs completion) interact significantly on self-reported germane cognitive load, but not on intrinsic or extraneous load
• Prior knowledge and working memory capacity did not moderate the worked example effect - Prior knowledge and working memory capacity did not moderate the worked example effect
• Prior knowledge can hinder credibility evaluation through selective attention and overconfidence - Prior knowledge can hinder credibility evaluation through selective attention and overconfidence
• Prior knowledge correlates negatively with delayed ICL and ECL and positively with delayed GCL, consistent with meta-analytic findings - Prior knowledge correlates negatively with delayed ICL and ECL and positively with delayed GCL, consistent with meta-analytic findings
• Prior Knowledge Determines New Learning
• Prior knowledge directly predicted all three formative assessments (β=.11, β=.24, β=.11) but no future interest outcomes. - Prior knowledge directly predicted all three formative assessments (β=.11, β=.24, β=.11) but no future interest outcomes.
• Prior knowledge is not significantly related to test performance in this sample
• Prior knowledge may moderate EMME effectiveness, but support for novices benefiting more is inconsistent across studies - Prior knowledge may moderate EMME effectiveness, but support for novices benefiting more is inconsistent across studies
• Prior knowledge moderated the VF-process advantage over PF: the benefit of observing the process grew with prior knowledge, while prior knowledge did not affect post-test performance in the PF condition - Prior knowledge moderated the VF-process advantage over PF: the benefit of observing the process grew with prior knowledge, while prior knowledge did not affect post-test performance in the PF conditi
• Prior knowledge moderates non-interactive teaching: low conceptual knowledge learners profit more, but very low-knowledge learners may not benefit at all - Prior knowledge moderates non-interactive teaching: low conceptual knowledge learners profit more, but very low-knowledge learners may not benefit at all
• Prior knowledge moderates scaffolding effectiveness: reflection phases were more effective for higher education levels, examples for lower levels - Prior knowledge moderates scaffolding effectiveness: reflection phases were more effective for higher education levels, examples for lower levels
• Prior knowledge moderates the effectiveness of erroneous and contrasting erroneous examples, with low-prior-knowledge learners benefiting in several studies but findings contradictory - Prior knowledge moderates the effectiveness of erroneous and contrasting erroneous examples, with low-prior-knowledge learners benefiting in several studies but findings contradictory
• Prior Knowledge Needed For Accurate Self Assessment
• Prior knowledge relates to sourcing in fewer than half of reviewed studies, with the relationship varying by how knowledge is measured - Prior knowledge relates to sourcing in fewer than half of reviewed studies, with the relationship varying by how knowledge is measured
• Prior knowledge research is conducted mostly with adults (40.71%) and in postsecondary education (46.31%), based on available database records - Prior knowledge research is conducted mostly with adults (40.71%) and in postsecondary education (46.31%), based on available database records
• Prior knowledge research spans 23 topics organized into five communities: Education, Learning Environments, Cognitive Processes, Nonacademic Settings, and Language - Prior knowledge research spans 23 topics organized into five communities: Education, Learning Environments, Cognitive Processes, Nonacademic Settings, and Language
• Prior knowledge score did not significantly moderate the sequence effect within either experiment, though each experiment covered a restricted prior-knowledge range - Prior knowledge score did not significantly moderate the sequence effect within either experiment, though each experiment covered a restricted prior-knowledge range
• Prior knowledge significantly predicted comprehension and transfer performance in the replication, and motivation during learning predicted retention - Prior knowledge significantly predicted comprehension and transfer performance in the replication, and motivation during learning predicted retention
• Prior knowledge strongly predicts post-test application and transfer scores in both topics - Prior knowledge strongly predicts post-test application and transfer scores in both topics
• Prior knowledge, but not interest or estimated prior knowledge, predicts use of learner control options - Prior knowledge, but not interest or estimated prior knowledge, predicts use of learner control options
• Prior knowledge, worked-example type (full vs completion) and task difficulty show a significant three-way interaction on an algebra posttest, but not on self-reported cognitive load - Prior knowledge, worked-example type (full vs completion) and task difficulty show a significant three-way interaction on an algebra posttest, but not on self-reported cognitive load
• Prior learning assessment is associated with cost and time savings and higher credential completion, yet engagement remains low - Prior learning assessment is associated with cost and time savings and higher credential completion, yet engagement remains low
• Prior mastery-approach goals moderate the effect of performance-approach goal instructions on mental effort - Prior mastery-approach goals moderate the effect of performance-approach goal instructions on mental effort
• Prior math self-concept moderated positive feedback on self-concept: positive feedback strengthened pre-existing self-concept - Prior math self-concept moderated positive feedback on self-concept: positive feedback strengthened pre-existing self-concept
• Prior mathematical accuracy is the dominant propensity factor: over half of January accuracy variance and under one-fifth of fluency variance predicted June performance - Prior mathematical accuracy is the dominant propensity factor: over half of January accuracy variance and under one-fifth of fluency variance predicted June performance
• Prior mathematical competence by in-class attention interaction: attention benefits were strongest among students with stronger prior knowledge - Prior mathematical competence by in-class attention interaction: attention benefits were strongest among students with stronger prior knowledge
• Prior mathematical competence by spatial ability (MRT) interaction was only a trend, with competence slopes strongest in the high-MRT group - Prior mathematical competence by spatial ability (MRT) interaction was only a trend, with competence slopes strongest in the high-MRT group
• Prior mathematical knowledge correlates very strongly with later mathematics achievement (r = .63), largely reflecting stable differences between learners
• Prior meta-analyses found the screen inferiority effect did not differ as a function of digital device type - Prior meta-analyses found the screen inferiority effect did not differ as a function of digital device type
• Prior meta-analyses found word-problem interventions less effective for students with co-occurring difficulties than for students with mathematics difficulties only - Prior meta-analyses found word-problem interventions less effective for students with co-occurring difficulties than for students with mathematics difficulties only
• Prior meta-analyses report few or weak associations between ECEC quality indices and child progress, with process quality more predictive than structural quality - Prior meta-analyses report few or weak associations between ECEC quality indices and child progress, with process quality more predictive than structural quality
• Prior meta-analysis found a negative medium-sized effort–monitoring correlation (r = -0.35), attenuated under goal-driven manipulations - Prior meta-analysis found a negative medium-sized effort–monitoring correlation (r = -0.35), attenuated under goal-driven manipulations
• Prior meta-analytic and experimental evidence reports positive effects of linguistic simplification on learning outcomes, attributed by the review literature cited in this article - Prior meta-analytic and experimental evidence reports positive effects of linguistic simplification on learning outcomes, attributed by the review literature cited in this article
• Prior meta-analytic evidence indicates chatbot technology has a substantial positive effect on overall learning outcomes and knowledge retention, but not on critical thinking, engagement, or motivation - Prior meta-analytic evidence indicates chatbot technology has a substantial positive effect on overall learning outcomes and knowledge retention, but not on critical thinking, engagement, or motivatio
• Prior narrative reviews found poor readers at risk for internalising problems, with attention problems raising risk further - Prior narrative reviews found poor readers at risk for internalising problems, with attention problems raising risk further
• Prior nationally representative studies found incoming kindergarteners' math and literacy skills were higher in 2010 than in 1998 - Prior nationally representative studies found incoming kindergarteners' math and literacy skills were higher in 2010 than in 1998
• Prior non-LLM automated coding approaches yielded variable and often lower agreement with human coders on teacher knowledge measures, especially PCK - Prior non-LLM automated coding approaches yielded variable and often lower agreement with human coders on teacher knowledge measures, especially PCK
• Prior objective achievement is a strong predictor of preschool academic skill and may be protective against harmful teacher perceptions, while low-income children are most vulnerable to negative perceptions - Prior objective achievement is a strong predictor of preschool academic skill and may be protective against harmful teacher perceptions, while low-income children are most vulnerable to negative perce
• Prior OSL research shows highly inconsistent cognitive and motivational effects of authentic setting features, and few studies measured perceived authenticity - Prior OSL research shows highly inconsistent cognitive and motivational effects of authentic setting features, and few studies measured perceived authenticity
• Prior physics knowledge moderated the correlation between feeling of learning and actual test performance (positive interaction, P < 0.05) - Prior physics knowledge moderated the correlation between feeling of learning and actual test performance (positive interaction, P < 0.05)
• Prior problem-based discussion does not change the number of inaccurate propositions recalled - Prior problem-based discussion does not change the number of inaccurate propositions recalled
• Prior profile research links maladaptive motivational profiles to poorer school adjustment and achievement - Prior profile research links maladaptive motivational profiles to poorer school adjustment and achievement
• Prior programming experience significantly predicted Promptly task performance and prompting self-efficacy - Prior programming experience significantly predicted Promptly task performance and prompting self-efficacy
• Prior programming performance moderates the misalignment–performance association, with the cost concentrated in lower-performing teams - Prior programming performance moderates the misalignment–performance association, with the cost concentrated in lower-performing teams
• Prior proportional reasoning knowledge predicts later probabilistic knowledge even after controlling for prior probability knowledge - Prior proportional reasoning knowledge predicts later probabilistic knowledge even after controlling for prior probability knowledge
• Prior randomized studies of Future Forward/SPARK met WWC standards Without Reservations and found positive impacts on literacy and attendance - Prior randomized studies of Future Forward/SPARK met WWC standards Without Reservations and found positive impacts on literacy and attendance
• Prior research attributes growing male superiority in word problem solving to age, with onset debated between sixth grade and high school - Prior research attributes growing male superiority in word problem solving to age, with onset debated between sixth grade and high school
• Prior research attributes reading achievement inequalities to the simultaneous, mutually constitutive operation of SES, immigrant background, and gender - Prior research attributes reading achievement inequalities to the simultaneous, mutually constitutive operation of SES, immigrant background, and gender
• Prior research established correlations between observable student experiences such as frustration and clickstream data in ASSISTments, enabling experience-variable equity research without demographic data - Prior research established correlations between observable student experiences such as frustration and clickstream data in ASSISTments, enabling experience-variable equity research without demographic
• Prior research failed to find clear evidence that animated graphics improve comprehension over static graphics - Prior research failed to find clear evidence that animated graphics improve comprehension over static graphics
• Prior research found CREACT significantly improved creative performance on poem and story tasks but had a low effect on a paradox task - Prior research found CREACT significantly improved creative performance on poem and story tasks but had a low effect on a paradox task
• Prior research has linked moving during childhood with adverse educational and behavioral adjustment outcomes, with the disruptive nature of moving cited as the underlying factor - Prior research has linked moving during childhood with adverse educational and behavioral adjustment outcomes, with the disruptive nature of moving cited as the underlying factor
• Prior research indicates children with dyslexia frequently show poor and slow handwriting skills, but the cause remained unclear - Prior research indicates children with dyslexia frequently show poor and slow handwriting skills, but the cause remained unclear
• Prior research on KIPP suggested positive achievement impacts but was limited by small samples or methodological weaknesses - Prior research on KIPP suggested positive achievement impacts but was limited by small samples or methodological weaknesses
• Prior research on small-group collaboration covers middle to late childhood, with a dearth of research on adolescence and early adulthood and inconclusive suggestions about age-related change - Prior research on small-group collaboration covers middle to late childhood, with a dearth of research on adolescence and early adulthood and inconclusive suggestions about age-related change
• Prior residency experience of vetted EPPs and high district engagement enabled TCLAS uptake - Prior residency experience of vetted EPPs and high district engagement enabled TCLAS uptake
• Prior reviews identify interactive, well-timed, tailored programs delivered by trained personnel as effective - Prior reviews identify interactive, well-timed, tailored programs delivered by trained personnel as effective
• Prior reviews of inclusion published before 2000 reported equivocal effects, including a pooled effect size of 0.33 favouring inclusion - Prior reviews of inclusion published before 2000 reported equivocal effects, including a pooled effect size of 0.33 favouring inclusion
• Prior reviews report positive word-reading intervention effects for adolescents but with a wide range (0-1.31) due to broad outcome conceptualization - Prior reviews report positive word-reading intervention effects for adolescents but with a wide range (0-1.31) due to broad outcome conceptualization
• Prior seasonal studies were limited to social-category skill gaps and early grades - Prior seasonal studies were limited to social-category skill gaps and early grades
• Prior secondary-school evidence indicates stronger student–teacher alignment on observable facets such as classroom management (r = .64) than on more internal or interpretive aspects - Prior secondary-school evidence indicates stronger student–teacher alignment on observable facets such as classroom management (r = .64) than on more internal or interpretive aspects
• Prior SNA studies of centrality-achievement links in CSCL show inconsistent, mostly small-sample results, with betweenness and closeness the most inconsistent measures - Prior SNA studies of centrality-achievement links in CSCL show inconsistent, mostly small-sample results, with betweenness and closeness the most inconsistent measures
• Prior spelling test lists (Ayres, Buckingham) are too easy for better pupils, with more than half of eighth-graders spelling all Buckingham list words correctly - Prior spelling test lists (Ayres, Buckingham) are too easy for better pupils, with more than half of eighth-graders spelling all Buckingham list words correctly
• Prior studies find significant course access gaps between ELs and non-ELs - Prior studies find significant course access gaps between ELs and non-ELs
• Prior studies reviewed show exploratory learning outperformed proceduralized instruction for training performance and transfer - Prior studies reviewed show exploratory learning outperformed proceduralized instruction for training performance and transfer
• Prior studies show low and variable correlations between mental tests and college grades, averaging from .09 to .44 - Prior studies show low and variable correlations between mental tests and college grades, averaging from .09 to .44
• Prior studies support the experiential canalization framework: preschoolers in poverty are almost five times as likely to show disrupted diurnal cortisol patterns, and increased economic hardship is associated with significantly lower cognitive self-regulation - Prior studies support the experiential canalization framework: preschoolers in poverty are almost five times as likely to show disrupted diurnal cortisol patterns, and increased economic hardship is a
• Prior syntheses of educational technology effects show inconsistent findings, with mobile learning meta-analysis finding near-zero maths effects and reading interventions comparatively more effective - Prior syntheses of educational technology effects show inconsistent findings, with mobile learning meta-analysis finding near-zero maths effects and reading interventions comparatively more effective
• Prior threshold-method comparison studies typically used simulated or small-scale data, or non-CAT large-scale data with few items - Prior threshold-method comparison studies typically used simulated or small-scale data, or non-CAT large-scale data with few items
• Prior vocabulary knowledge moderates vocabulary learning gains in an extensive reading program, with high-level learners gaining more than intermediate and low-level learners - Prior vocabulary knowledge moderates vocabulary learning gains in an extensive reading program, with high-level learners gaining more than intermediate and low-level learners
• Prior work has elucidated factors contributing to middle and high school students' perceptions, but less is known about elementary students' perceptions - Prior work has elucidated factors contributing to middle and high school students' perceptions, but less is known about elementary students' perceptions
• Prior-knowledge activation instructions before study had little effect on retention in Experiment 2 - Prior-knowledge activation instructions before study had little effect on retention in Experiment 2
• Prior-year absence effects on starting achievement are much smaller in reading than mathematics and non-significant in most grade levels - Prior-year absence effects on starting achievement are much smaller in reading than mathematics and non-significant in most grade levels
• Prior-year heat exposure reduces learning, with about 3 times greater impact on Black and Hispanic/Latine students than White students - Prior-year heat exposure reduces learning, with about 3 times greater impact on Black and Hispanic/Latine students than White students
• Prison college participation was reported to increase institutional cohesion, including among non-participating incarcerated women - Prison college participation was reported to increase institutional cohesion, including among non-participating incarcerated women
• Prison higher education alone was reported as insufficient for post-release employment, with criminal-record and reentry barriers persisting - Prison higher education alone was reported as insufficient for post-release employment, with criminal-record and reentry barriers persisting
• Privacy and data protection was a critical governance theme, raised by over half the expert panel - Privacy and data protection was a critical governance theme, raised by over half the expert panel
• Privacy capacity was unevenly distributed, distinguishing resource scarcity from strategic deprioritization of privacy - Privacy capacity was unevenly distributed, distinguishing resource scarcity from strategic deprioritization of privacy
• Privacy protection in the framework is partial: three residual leakage channels remain open - Privacy protection in the framework is partial: three residual leakage channels remain open
• Privacy protections lag behind reputational concerns: institutions rarely consider implications of capturing audio-visual and behavioral data from private spaces, and AI algorithms are seldom transparent about error rates - Privacy protections lag behind reputational concerns: institutions rarely consider implications of capturing audio-visual and behavioral data from private spaces, and AI algorithms are seldom transpar
• Private schooling accessed through a choice program shows no significant civic association, while self-selected private attendance does. - Private schooling accessed through a choice program shows no significant civic association, while self-selected private attendance does.
• Private schooling is associated with a small positive average advantage in civic outcomes over public schooling (0.055 SD). - Private schooling is associated with a small positive average advantage in civic outcomes over public schooling (0.055 SD).
• Private schooling is associated with higher political tolerance (0.120 SD) and higher civic knowledge and skills (0.121 SD). - Private schooling is associated with higher political tolerance (0.120 SD) and higher civic knowledge and skills (0.121 SD).
• Private schooling shows no statistically significant association with political participation in the four-category analysis. - Private schooling shows no statistically significant association with political participation in the four-category analysis.
• Proactive AI agent dialogues showed stronger conceptual–adequate reasoning links while reactive dialogues showed stronger factual/off-task associations - Proactive AI agent dialogues showed stronger conceptual–adequate reasoning links while reactive dialogues showed stronger factual/off-task associations
• Proactive feedback produces significant post-intervention increases in Joint Mental Effort of dyads - Proactive feedback produces significant post-intervention increases in Joint Mental Effort of dyads
• Proactive feedback produces significant post-intervention increases in Joint Visual Attention of dyads - Proactive feedback produces significant post-intervention increases in Joint Visual Attention of dyads
• Proactive flow-aware highlighting helps fiction writers recognize latent knowledge gaps they would not search for on their own - Proactive flow-aware highlighting helps fiction writers recognize latent knowledge gaps they would not search for on their own
• Proactive FOF improved grammar more than reactive FOF at both beginner and upper-intermediate proficiency levels - Proactive FOF improved grammar more than reactive FOF at both beginner and upper-intermediate proficiency levels
• Proactive multimodal feedback significantly increases debugging success in pair programming compared to no-feedback control - Proactive multimodal feedback significantly increases debugging success in pair programming compared to no-feedback control
• Proactive multimodal feedback significantly increases feedback uptake compared to control - Proactive multimodal feedback significantly increases feedback uptake compared to control
• Proactive multimodal feedback significantly reduces debugging time on task compared to control - Proactive multimodal feedback significantly reduces debugging time on task compared to control
• Proactive PALs yielded higher recall than responsive PALs, with the advantage differing by learner academic strength - Proactive PALs yielded higher recall than responsive PALs, with the advantage differing by learner academic strength
• Proactive tutoring increases learners' use of lexical help tools compared with reactive tutoring - Proactive tutoring increases learners' use of lexical help tools compared with reactive tutoring
• Proactive tutoring increases learners' use of metacognitive help tools compared with reactive tutoring - Proactive tutoring increases learners' use of metacognitive help tools compared with reactive tutoring
• Proactive tutoring produced larger relative MAP growth than reactive tutoring on average (75% marginally significant in the IK bandwidth) - Proactive tutoring produced larger relative MAP growth than reactive tutoring on average (75% marginally significant in the IK bandwidth)
• Probabilistic peer grading models that estimate grader bias and reliability reduce RMSE against ground-truth grades by 33% and 31% on two HCI course offerings - Probabilistic peer grading models that estimate grader bias and reliability reduce RMSE against ground-truth grades by 33% and 31% on two HCI course offerings
• Probability of visual attention distraction, alone or combined with hands withholding, prevails after about 10–30 seconds of delay - Probability of visual attention distraction, alone or combined with hands withholding, prevails after about 10–30 seconds of delay
• Probe-caught affect reports show stronger self-loops among core epistemic states, while self-caught reports show more distributed transitions involving higher-arousal states - Probe-caught affect reports show stronger self-loops among core epistemic states, while self-caught reports show more distributed transitions involving higher-arousal states
• Probeware affords measurement of acceleration at the cart's highest point after an upward push, permitting the fallacy that acceleration is zero there to be addressed - Probeware affords measurement of acceleration at the cart's highest point after an upward push, permitting the fallacy that acceleration is zero there to be addressed
• Problem analysis through small-group discussion particularly stimulates the production of explanatory propositions, via a significant treatment-by-proposition-type interaction - Problem analysis through small-group discussion particularly stimulates the production of explanatory propositions, via a significant treatment-by-proposition-type interaction
• Problem decomposition, artifact creation, data practices, and testing/debugging appear in all 28 reviewed CT manuscripts, while iterative refinement appears in 17 - Problem decomposition, artifact creation, data practices, and testing/debugging appear in all 28 reviewed CT manuscripts, while iterative refinement appears in 17
• Problem isomorphs with identical structure differ greatly in difficulty; Monster Change took 16 times as long to solve as the standard problem - Problem isomorphs with identical structure differ greatly in difficulty; Monster Change took 16 times as long to solve as the standard problem
• Problem order produced an order effect: solving basketball problems first improved performance on all problems, while school problems first lowered performance - Problem order produced an order effect: solving basketball problems first improved performance on all problems, while school problems first lowered performance
• Problem positions are averaged across grades with a weighting scheme that distrusts per cents near 0% and 100% and omits entries 3 P.E. or more from the median - Problem positions are averaged across grades with a weighting scheme that distrusts per cents near 0% and 100% and omits entries 3 P.E.
• Problem solving accuracy showed age-related declines but no significant main effect of feedback; a marginal Age × Feedback interaction reflected age differences only within the high-PFB group - Problem solving accuracy showed age-related declines but no significant main effect of feedback; a marginal Age × Feedback interaction reflected age differences only within the high-PFB group
• Problem solving after acquisition outperformed example study at a one-week delayed posttest but not immediately - Problem solving after acquisition outperformed example study at a one-week delayed posttest but not immediately
• Problem type modulated solution times, with large problems slowest and +1 problems fastest in both age groups - Problem type modulated solution times, with large problems slowest and +1 problems fastest in both age groups
• Problem-based curricula enhance deep approaches and discourage surface approaches compared with subject-based curricula - Problem-based curricula enhance deep approaches and discourage surface approaches compared with subject-based curricula
• Problem-based discussion prior to studying a text does not increase the number of inferences during immediate free recall - Problem-based discussion prior to studying a text does not increase the number of inferences during immediate free recall
• Problem-based learning connecting coursework and practice is associated with stronger candidate skill development and self-efficacy - Problem-based learning connecting coursework and practice is associated with stronger candidate skill development and self-efficacy
• Problem-based learning environments consistently improve students' critical thinking compared with lecture-based instruction - Problem-based learning environments consistently improve students' critical thinking compared with lecture-based instruction
• Problem-based learning shows a large positive pooled effect on academic achievement (REM ES = 1.560), with heterogeneous study effects - Problem-based learning shows a large positive pooled effect on academic achievement (REM ES = 1.560), with heterogeneous study effects
• Problem-based learning shows null or negative effects on basic knowledge acquisition but positive effects on conceptual understanding and transfer relative to direct instruction - Problem-based learning shows null or negative effects on basic knowledge acquisition but positive effects on conceptual understanding and transfer relative to direct instruction
• Problem-based tutorial discussion of a relevant problem before studying an expository text increases the number of accurate propositions recalled from that text - Problem-based tutorial discussion of a relevant problem before studying an expository text increases the number of accurate propositions recalled from that text
• Problem-based, project-based, and case-based learning do not differ in their effects on students' motivation - Problem-based, project-based, and case-based learning do not differ in their effects on students' motivation
• Problem-driven learning shows larger motivation effects in healthcare and STEM domains than in other academic domains - Problem-driven learning shows larger motivation effects in healthcare and STEM domains than in other academic domains
• Problem-driven learning shows significantly smaller effects on students' reasons for studying than on other motivation constructs - Problem-driven learning shows significantly smaller effects on students' reasons for studying than on other motivation constructs
• Problem-solving facilitates diagnostic competences independent of learners' professional knowledge base - Problem-solving facilitates diagnostic competences independent of learners' professional knowledge base
• Problem-solving performance improves significantly only when coherence and linking changes are combined, showing the predicted interaction - Problem-solving performance improves significantly only when coherence and linking changes are combined, showing the predicted interaction
• Problem-solving-prepared students often accepted the AI solution uncritically or critiqued it based on their own misconceptions - Problem-solving-prepared students often accepted the AI solution uncritically or critiqued it based on their own misconceptions
• Problematic one-way links between production and consumption processes impede the technology's circulation, with only one manufacturer responding to users - Problematic one-way links between production and consumption processes impede the technology's circulation, with only one manufacturer responding to users
• Problematizing scaffolds elicit constructive, interaction-embedded metacognitive activities, whereas structuring scaffolds elicit application of examples - Problematizing scaffolds elicit constructive, interaction-embedded metacognitive activities, whereas structuring scaffolds elicit application of examples
• Problematizing scaffolds produced a medium significant positive effect on group performance compared to structuring scaffolds - Problematizing scaffolds produced a medium significant positive effect on group performance compared to structuring scaffolds
• Problematizing scaffolds produced a small significant positive effect on individual metacognitive knowledge compared to structuring scaffolds - Problematizing scaffolds produced a small significant positive effect on individual metacognitive knowledge compared to structuring scaffolds
• Problematizing scaffolds produced a small significant positive effect on transfer of individual domain knowledge compared to structuring scaffolds - Problematizing scaffolds produced a small significant positive effect on transfer of individual domain knowledge compared to structuring scaffolds
• Problematizing scaffolds timed to metacognitive moments led students to learn the most domain knowledge - Problematizing scaffolds timed to metacognitive moments led students to learn the most domain knowledge
• Problems whose per cents solved do not increase monotonically across grades are eliminated as not measuring grade-to-grade progress - Problems whose per cents solved do not increase monotonically across grades are eliminated as not measuring grade-to-grade progress
• Procedural and conceptual counting knowledge each predict kindergarten arithmetic, together explaining about 25% of variance - Procedural and conceptual counting knowledge each predict kindergarten arithmetic, together explaining about 25% of variance
• Procedural and conceptual knowledge in mathematics develop bidirectionally, so instruction need not always proceed conceptual-to-procedural - Procedural and conceptual knowledge in mathematics develop bidirectionally, so instruction need not always proceed conceptual-to-procedural
• Procedural and strategic supports during reading tended to positively affect comprehension compared to no-treatment controls, with exceptions when compared against mobilization - Procedural and strategic supports during reading tended to positively affect comprehension compared to no-treatment controls, with exceptions when compared against mobilization
• Procedural competencies from simulation-based RL training generalize to out-of-domain benchmarks including AMIE Mx, AgentClinic, and CRAFT-MD - Procedural competencies from simulation-based RL training generalize to out-of-domain benchmarks including AMIE Mx, AgentClinic, and CRAFT-MD
• Procedural computation/estimation tutoring does not improve automatic fact retrieval - Procedural computation/estimation tutoring does not improve automatic fact retrieval
• Procedural execution in data visualization declined significantly and more steeply than conceptual understanding over twelve months - Procedural execution in data visualization declined significantly and more steeply than conceptual understanding over twelve months
• Procedural justice shows a within-person association with subsequent intrinsic motivation that is numerically larger than its association with extrinsic motivation, though the coefficient difference is not statistically significant - Procedural justice shows a within-person association with subsequent intrinsic motivation that is numerically larger than its association with extrinsic motivation, though the coefficient difference i
• Procedural knowledge engaged through applying tasks is hypothesized to function as a cognitive bridge between domain-specific reasoning processes, pending empirical validation - Procedural knowledge engaged through applying tasks is hypothesized to function as a cognitive bridge between domain-specific reasoning processes, pending empirical validation
• Procedural knowledge gained during video training declines significantly from practice to the post-tests - Procedural knowledge gained during video training declines significantly from practice to the post-tests
• Procedural losses were steepest for axis labeling and annotations, while conceptual losses were steepest for explanation of scales and terminology - Procedural losses were steepest for axis labeling and annotations, while conceptual losses were steepest for explanation of scales and terminology
• Procedural memory predicts immediate regular-past-tense UGJT posttest scores, controlling for pretest, only under metalinguistic prompts - Procedural memory predicts immediate regular-past-tense UGJT posttest scores, controlling for pretest, only under metalinguistic prompts
• Procedural memory shows no association with irregular past tense learning under any CF type - Procedural memory shows no association with irregular past tense learning under any CF type
• Procedural prior knowledge predicted conceptual post-test skill, but conceptual prior knowledge did not predict procedural post-test skill - Procedural prior knowledge predicted conceptual post-test skill, but conceptual prior knowledge did not predict procedural post-test skill
• Procedural skill-sharing posts receive significantly higher engagement than conceptual or other posts in an AI agent community - Procedural skill-sharing posts receive significantly higher engagement than conceptual or other posts in an AI agent community
• Process goals lead to better skill acquisition for novices than outcome goals.
• Process measures distinguish how text was entered: classroom writers revised most, left the editor often, and wrote actively for 77% of the session - Process measures distinguish how text was entered: classroom writers revised most, left the editor often, and wrote actively for 77% of the session
• Process mining of two fitness-typical groups suggests the group with more heterogeneous yellow markers and shared red markers worked more efficiently while both achieved the same summary outcome - Process mining of two fitness-typical groups suggests the group with more heterogeneous yellow markers and shared red markers worked more efficiently while both achieved the same summary outcome
• Process mining shows low performers access solutions more and transition to hints after incorrect submissions more than high performers - Process mining shows low performers access solutions more and transition to hints after incorrect submissions more than high performers
• Process mining shows the ChatGPT group's revision loop centred on consulting ChatGPT, while the human-expert group strengthened connections between revising and reading, orientation and evaluation - Process mining shows the ChatGPT group's revision loop centred on consulting ChatGPT, while the human-expert group strengthened connections between revising and reading, orientation and evaluation
• Process mining shows VM conditions exhibit unique reasoning–self-regulation sequences and self-loops absent in the control condition - Process mining shows VM conditions exhibit unique reasoning–self-regulation sequences and self-loops absent in the control condition
• Process models of successful students come closer to self-regulated learning theory expectations than those of unsuccessful students, who do not evaluate their learning - Process models of successful students come closer to self-regulated learning theory expectations than those of unsuccessful students, who do not evaluate their learning
• Process praise effects persist after controlling for overall parent talk and SES, suggesting they are not proxies for general engagement - Process praise effects persist after controlling for overall parent talk and SES, suggesting they are not proxies for general engagement
• Process praise to toddlers predicts fourth grade math and reading comprehension achievement via children's incremental motivational frameworks - Process praise to toddlers predicts fourth grade math and reading comprehension achievement via children's incremental motivational frameworks
• Process Writing Improves Writing Quality
• Process writing yields a meaningful but not statistically significant effect (g = 0.51) on US ELL students' writing - Process writing yields a meaningful but not statistically significant effect (g = 0.51) on US ELL students' writing
• Process-based and product-based feedback produce larger performance gains than no feedback, with rubric-based feedback only marginal - Process-based and product-based feedback produce larger performance gains than no feedback, with rubric-based feedback only marginal
• Process-oriented (bottom-up) therapies for DCD show weak or null effects, while task-oriented approaches are effective in improving motor performance - Process-oriented (bottom-up) therapies for DCD show weak or null effects, while task-oriented approaches are effective in improving motor performance
• Process-tracing measures should accompany outcome measures because process changes may not be immediately reflected in outcomes - Process-tracing measures should accompany outcome measures because process changes may not be immediately reflected in outcomes
• Processing efficiency at 19 months mediates the relation between child-directed speech and 24-month vocabulary - Processing efficiency at 19 months mediates the relation between child-directed speech and 24-month vocabulary
• Processing instruction produces significant gains in both sentence-level comprehension and production - Processing instruction produces significant gains in both sentence-level comprehension and production
• Processing of affective stimuli is prioritized and interferes with target processing during the attentional blink interval in early adolescence - Processing of affective stimuli is prioritized and interferes with target processing during the attentional blink interval in early adolescence
• Processing speed affects math achievement directly and both reading and math indirectly through working memory - Processing speed affects math achievement directly and both reading and math indirectly through working memory
• Processing speed at 19 months correlates with expressive vocabulary between 18 and 31 months, but processing speed at 25 and 31 months does not - Processing speed at 19 months correlates with expressive vocabulary between 18 and 31 months, but processing speed at 25 and 31 months does not
• Processing speed at 19 months does not significantly influence linear vocabulary growth between 19 and 30 months - Processing speed at 19 months does not significantly influence linear vocabulary growth between 19 and 30 months
• Processing speed has a significant effect on both letter and category fluency in older adults, while IQ does not - Processing speed has a significant effect on both letter and category fluency in older adults, while IQ does not
• Processing speed in adults with ASD shows no significant association with SAS-II social adjustment, and only a near-significant positive association with GAF functioning - Processing speed in adults with ASD shows no significant association with SAS-II social adjustment, and only a near-significant positive association with GAF functioning
• Processing speed is linked to working memory in both studies, but its link to short-term memory is inconsistent across studies - Processing speed is linked to working memory in both studies, but its link to short-term memory is inconsistent across studies
• Processing speed is the most impaired Wechsler cognitive domain among youth referred for neuropsychiatric evaluation - Processing speed is the most impaired Wechsler cognitive domain among youth referred for neuropsychiatric evaluation
• Processing speed measured with response times is better represented as four distinct cognitive processes (planning, attention, simultaneous, successive) than as a unitary speed factor - Processing speed measured with response times is better represented as four distinct cognitive processes (planning, attention, simultaneous, successive) than as a unitary speed factor
• Processing speed showed no significant group × time interaction, with only a marginal intervention advantage at 4 weeks - Processing speed showed no significant group × time interaction, with only a marginal intervention advantage at 4 weeks
• Procrastination is the strongest negative predictor of daily study satisfaction, reducing satisfaction above and beyond time investment, planning, and effort - Procrastination is the strongest negative predictor of daily study satisfaction, reducing satisfaction above and beyond time investment, planning, and effort
• Proctor notification after rapid-guessing detection improved test performance and yielded higher convergent validation evidence - Proctor notification after rapid-guessing detection improved test performance and yielded higher convergent validation evidence
• Proctor notification when students disengage makes a significant impact on student test engagement - Proctor notification when students disengage makes a significant impact on student test engagement
• Proctored online exams show no effect on students' exam performance - Proctored online exams show no effect on students' exam performance
• Proctored online exams show no effect on students' perceived exam difficulty - Proctored online exams show no effect on students' perceived exam difficulty
• Producers signal their own argumentative position with arrows pointing toward their own arguments and more boxes around own arguments - Producers signal their own argumentative position with arrows pointing toward their own arguments and more boxes around own arguments
• Producing a public information resource evoked a sense of responsibility toward readers that motivated care about information quality - Producing a public information resource evoked a sense of responsibility toward readers that motivated care about information quality
• Producing gestures shows no significant benefit for adult narrative comprehension - Producing gestures shows no significant benefit for adult narrative comprehension
• Producing modified output involving developmentally advanced question forms in response to negative feedback is the only significant predictor of ESL question development - Producing modified output involving developmentally advanced question forms in response to negative feedback is the only significant predictor of ESL question development
• Product measures distinguish LLM-formulated text from classroom-formulated text regardless of how it was entered - Product measures distinguish LLM-formulated text from classroom-formulated text regardless of how it was entered
• Product-outcome studies report GenAI-related gains on product-quality measures but do not assess durable, transferable learning - Product-outcome studies report GenAI-related gains on product-quality measures but do not assess durable, transferable learning
• Productive cognitive offloading to AI can shift into cognitive surrender, abdicating learner intellectual agency - Productive cognitive offloading to AI can shift into cognitive surrender, abdicating learner intellectual agency
• Productive collaboration norms in mathematics PLC fall into three categories, with trust norms acting as prerequisites for critical inquiry, and develop over time - Productive collaboration norms in mathematics PLC fall into three categories, with trust norms acting as prerequisites for critical inquiry, and develop over time
• Productive discourse practices correlate with improved performance on standardized tests of reasoning - Productive discourse practices correlate with improved performance on standardized tests of reasoning
• Productive failure before instruction outperforms instruction followed by problem-solving - Productive failure before instruction outperforms instruction followed by problem-solving
• Productive Failure Improves Conceptual Learning
• Productive failure students demonstrated greater representation flexibility in working with graphical representations than students in the other two conditions - Productive failure students demonstrated greater representation flexibility in working with graphical representations than students in the other two conditions
• Productive failure students significantly outperformed lecture-practice and facilitated complex problem solving students on well-structured and higher-order application post-test problems - Productive failure students significantly outperformed lecture-practice and facilitated complex problem solving students on well-structured and higher-order application post-test problems
• Productive failure: student groups who score lower on individual post-tests may have experienced deeper learning leading to superior future performance - Productive failure: student groups who score lower on individual post-tests may have experienced deeper learning leading to superior future performance
• Productive interactions in long-term small-group collaboration take different forms, with discourse-based and object-oriented patterns the most relevant - Productive interactions in long-term small-group collaboration take different forms, with discourse-based and object-oriented patterns the most relevant
• Productivity profiles in adjacent grades are negatively related, so judging a school from selected grades alone can be very misleading - Productivity profiles in adjacent grades are negatively related, so judging a school from selected grades alone can be very misleading